Transcript Introduction to Psychology

Chapter 6 MEMORY
《普通心理学》专业课
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永远的战士
 49岁的健康、英俊的中年人
 谈吐用现在时而非过去时
 认为自己19岁，处于1945年
 顺向性遗忘症（anterograde
amnesia）
– 对大脑受损之后的事件失去记忆
 倒退性遗忘症（retrograde
amnesia）
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Memory
 记忆是人脑对过去经验的保持和提
取
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Outlines
Memory and its Biological Basis
 Memory and Information Processing
 Memory as a Constructive and Reconstructive
Process
 Retrieval and Forgetting
 How to Improving Memory?
 Challenges to the Information-Processing
Model

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1 The Nature of Memory
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1.1 Biological Basis
 定位说
 非定位说(脑均势说）
 突触生长说
 记忆分子说（DNA/RNA）
 记忆的电生理基础（反响回路）
 脑内代谢物与记忆
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1.2 Memory and Information
Processing
 Sensory
registers
 不到1秒
 Short-term
memory(STM)/Working
memory
 20－30秒
 Long-term
memory(LTM)
 可毕生不忘
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记忆的信息加工模型
行为反应
维持复述
刺激
感觉
登记
遗忘?
注意
STM
精细复述
LTM
提取
遗忘
遗忘
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Working Memory
 STM,is
also called working memory, it
functions like a mental sketch pad on which
people make mental notes, solve problems,
and hold relevant information in
consciousness for a brief period.
 Working memory can also exist in LTM.
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1.3 Three changes of memory
models
 Modules,
a set of memory systems.
 Remembering without involving retrieval
into consciousness.
 Not all information follows the path of the
model, further, the model is not
unidirectional.
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2 Sensory Registration
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2.1 The Evidence
George Sperlling(1960)
– Tachistoscope: flashing for 15-500ms.
 Whole report/Partial report
– Less than 4 of the 12 letters(33%)<==>roughly
3 out of the 4 items(75%)
– Partial report design: focusing attention on one
part of the image while it was still in iconic
storage .

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Partial Report
视觉呈现
音调指示
MQTZ
高音
RFGA
中音
NSLC
低音
反应
N, S, L, C
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2.2 Representation
 Mental
representation 心理表征
– a mental model of a stimulus or category of
stimuli.
 Sensory
Representation
 Verbal Representations
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表象
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Sensory Representation

Iconic storage
For a brief period after an image disappears from vision,
people retain a mental image of what they have seen (Foley
& Mulhern,1991; Neisser, 1967, 1976)
 The duration of icons varies from approximately half a
second to two seconds, depending on the individual, the
content of the image, and the circumstances.
 Presenting another image or even a flash of light directly
after the first image disappears erases the original icon.


Echoic storage

Two types of echoic memory systems: speech/nonspeech
sounds
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Sensory Representation
 Mental
manipulation(Kosslyn, 1983; Tye,
1991).
 Cooper & Shepard(1973): rotating of a
capital R
 PET scan study
 Eidetic imagery/photographic memory
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Verbal Representation
 Multiple
sensory and verbal
representations==>parallel processing of
information by modules in the brain
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3 Short-Term Memory
 Characteristics
of STM
 Controlling Information in STM
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3.1 Characteristics of STM
 Active
– workspace (Peterson & Peterson, 1959)
 Rapidly
accessed
 Preserved in the sequence presented
 Limited in capacity
– Miller(1956): 5-9 items
– Hermann Ebbinghaus(1885):
Seven-item limit
 nonsense syllables (pir, vup)


AVL, acoustic/verbal/linguistic

Conrad(1964): V---B, U
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3.2 Controlling Information in STM
 Rehearsal
– Maintenance Rehearsal: repeating the
information again and again to prevent it from
fading.
– Elaborative rehearsal: Thinking about, or
elaborating, the information meaning while
rehearsing. ==>transferring to LTM.
 Chunking
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Miller(1956)：神奇的7+-2
DJIBMNYSEWSJSEC
 因人、因事而异
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Chunking
DJIBMNYSEWSJSEC
DJ IBM NYSE WSJ SEC
dj: Dow-jones
ibm: International Business Machines
nyse: New York Stock Exchange
wsj: Wall Street Journal
sec: Securities and Exchange Commission//Samsung
Electronic Co.
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4 Long-Term Memory
 The
Serial Position Effect
 Long-Term Memory Systems
 Encoding and LTM
 How Information Is Stored in LTM
 Hierarchical Organization of LTM
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4.1 The Serial Position Effect
 Free
recall tasks
recalling as many as possible
 Serial
position effect
 Ss
were more likely to remember the earlier and
later items on the list than the words in the middle
(Atkinson & Schiffrin,1968).
 Primacy
effect/Recency effect
– Primacy---rehearsal: STM-->LTM
– Recency---STM
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4.2 LTM system

Explicit Memory

Implicit Memory
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Explicit Memory

Also called declarative memory, refers to
knowledge that can be consciously
brought to mind and declared.
–
–
Semantic memory
Episodic memory(Tulving, 1972, 1983)

Personal Event/ Public Event (Weaver, 1994)
 Flashbulb
memory
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Implicit Memory

Cannot be brought to mind consciously
but is expressed in behavior (Roediger,
1990)
–
–
–
Procedural memory
Priming effects
Results of Conditioning
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LTM System
LTM
Explicit Memory
Episodic
Memory
Semantic
Memory
Implicit Memory
Procedural Priming
Memory
Effects
Results of
Conditioning
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Priming Effects
 Definition
– 先前接触的相同或类似的信息，促进了新信
息的加工
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Bowers & Schacter(1990)：24词的词表
– BEASON
CHECK
PENNY
– READY
CHEESE PENGUIN
词干补词任务（12个老词干，63个新词干）
词表用词量：控制组12％，实验组30％。
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4.3 Encoding and LTM
 Rehearsal
and Levels of Processing
 Multiple Representations and
Representational Modes
 Mnemonic Devices
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Rehearsal and Levels of
Processing
Craik & Lockhart (1972)
Craik & Tulving(1975)
 Structural
Level (physical characteristics of the
stimulus)
 Phonemic
Level (simple characteristics of the
language )
 Semantic
Level (meaning of the stimulus)
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Representational Modes
 Paivio(1975)
:Dual-code hypothesis
– 斑马－台灯，图片和文字，反应时
 大多记忆内容以意义编码为主
 Bower(1972)
– 对偶学习
– 视觉表征与否（建立意义）
– 记忆效果相差1.5倍
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表象
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4.4 How Information Is Stored In
LTM
 Networks
of Association
 Node
 Hierarchical
–
Network Model
Quillian(1968); Collins & Quillian(1969)
 Spreading Activation
–
Collins & Loftus (1975)
Starting
–
of Activation: perception & thought
Nisbett & Wilson (1977)
Ocean-Moon
Tide
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5 Memory as a Constructive &
Reconstructive Process
 Flashbulb
memories
 Schemas and the Construction of Memory
 Schemas in Eyewitness Testimony
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Schemas and
the Construction of Memory
 Schema
– 特定情境或方面的有关知识。它组织信息并
且指导获得新的信息。
 Schemas
affect the way people remember
– Influencing coding
 不同人的视角不同
– Influencing reconstruct data in memory
 Schemas
and Retrieval
– Default values//Slots
– Frederic Bartlett(1932)
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Memory and Eyewitness
Testimony
 Loftus,
Elizabeth F(1975, 1979)
 Leading questions and eyewitness report
 Presupposition
–
How fast(stop sign)? Did you see a stop sign?
 “11月7日你在干什么？”
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6 Retrieval and Forgetting
 Recall/Recognition
–
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
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Encoding Specificity Principle
 Tulving
& Thompson(1973)
– 编码和随后提取的方式匹配，影响记忆提取
 Retrieval
cues
– Contexts
– Godden & Baddeley(1975): Divers
 State-dependent
memory
– Physical or emotional state can also provide
retrieval cues
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Forgetting
 Ebbinghaus(1885)
– forgetting curve
 Why
do people forget?
– Decay Theory
– Interference Theory
 proactive/retroactive
interference
– Motivated forgetting(repression)
 Childhood
Amnesia
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7 How to Improving memory?
 Attention
 Elaboration
and Encoding
 Chunking and Memory Span
 Imagery and Encoding
– method of loci
– peg methods (mental pegs such as numbers)
 Context
and Retrieval Preacting
 SQ3R
– survey, question, read, recite, and review
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Challenges to the InformationProcessing Model
 Computers
do not feel, wish, or desire.
 The role of consciousness
 The external validity of experimental study
 The role of cultural context of memory
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