Transcript What is Ecological Restoration?

RESTORASI
HUTAN
.RESTORASI HUTAN
Pemahaman “struktur hutan dan fungsi hutan” sangat penting
karena kerusakan hutan biasanya berkaitan dengan struktur
dan fungsi hutan.
Hutan yang rusak mempunyai struktur tegakan yang berbeda
dengan kondisi awalnya, sehingga fungsi hutan tersebut akan
terganggu.
Struktur hutan berkaitan erat dengan fungsi hutan, suatu
struktur hutan akan membentuk hutan yang memiliki fungsi
yang berbeda-beda, yaitu konsevasi, produksi atau lindung.
Kegiatan restorasi hutan ditujukan untuk memulihkan kembali
struktur tegakan seperti kondisi awalnya sehingga kawasan
hutan tersebut dapat menjalankan fungsinya seperti fungsi
awalnya. Parameter struktur tegakan a.l. : kekayaan jenis,
kerapatan, distribusi, dominasi, asosiasi, crown density.
Restorasi hutan biasanya berupa kegiatan reklamasi
(melibatkan kegiatan civil engineering, berhubungan dengan
pemulihan kondisi tanah) dan revegetasi (mengembalikan
pohon, shrub, dll).
“Restorasi” dapat didefinisikan sebagai upaya memperbaiki
atau memulihkan kondisi lahan yang rusak dengan membentuk
struktur dan fungsinya sesuai (mendekati) dengan kondisi
awal.
Diunduh dari: http://wahyukdephut.wordpress.com/2010/02/23/konsep-restorasi/………..
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.PENANAMAN-HUTAN KEMBALI
. Empat strategi penanaman hutan kembali tersebut adalah:
Membiarkan wilayah hutan tidak terganggu agar proses
regenerasi alami dapat berlangsung (untuk wilayah hutan yang
memiliki keragaman hayati dan tutupan vegetasi baik).
Membantu regenerasi alami (memotong jenis tumbuhan
pengganggu tertentu agar jenis-jenis pohon penting dapat
tumbuh).
Penanaman dengan pengayaan (ketika kelompok jenis tertentu
telah hilang, jenis pohon tertentu akan ditanam agar tercipta
habitat yang lebih beragam).
Penanaman jenis kunci (metode ini dikembangkan oleh FORRU
untuk wilayah yang rusak parah dimana beberapa jenis kunci
tertentu dipilih dan ditanam karena pohon-pohon ini dapat
menarik berbagai jenis satwa penyebar biji-bijian.
Diunduh dari: http://harapanrainforest.org/id/restorasi-hutan……….. 28/12/2012
.
. Pada saat ini, tim restorasi hutan telah terlibat dalam berbagai
tugas meliputi:
Pengembangan keterampilan dan kapasitas yang diperlukan di
masa mendatang.
Melaksanakan inventarisasi jenis pohon dan mencatat
kelimpahannya di dalam kawasan Harapan Rainforest.
Pemantauan fenologi (waktu berbunga dan berbuah) berbagai
jenis pohon di wilayah hutan berbeda. Penggumpulan biji-bijian
untuk diitanam di fasilitas pembibitan. Perawatan dan
pemantauan biji dan benih yang ditumbuhkan di fasilitas
pembibitan. Penanaman bibit dari fasilitas pembibitan pada plot
tertentu dalam kawasan.
Diunduh dari: http://harapanrainforest.org/id/restorasi-hutan……….. 28/12/2012
.RESTORASI EKOSISTEM HUTAN
Pemerintah Indonesia mencanangkan pengelolaan kawasan hutan
melalui skema restorasi ekosistem hutan seluas 3,3 juta hektar. Ada
empat strategi besar dalam konsep restorasi ekosistem hutan tersebut:
1. Memilih tanaman yang mudah dan cepat tumbuh pada lahan kritis,
memiliki struktur tajuk yang baik sebagai penahan air hujan dan
mengembalikan unsur hara tanah yang sudah ktitis.
2. Strategi ke dua, setelah terealisasi melakukan penanaman tanaman
asli pada kawasan yang direstorasi. Artinya, tanaman asli pada
kawasan yang direstorasi ditanam kembali dan itu akan lebih mudah
sebab kondisi lahan sudah tidak kritis lagi maka tingkat keberhasilan
tumbuhnya tanaman asli cenderung berhasil.
3. Strategi ke tiga, setelah tanaman asli tumbuh maka harus
membiarkan wilayah restorasi ekosistem hutan tidak diganggu apa
lagi ditebang agar proses regenerasi alami dapat berlangsung
normal sehingga nantinya memiliki keragaman hayati dan tutupan
vegetasi baik.
4. Strategi ke empat, membantu regenerasi alami tanaman asli
dengan cara memotong jenis tumbuhan pengganggu tertentu agar
jenis-jenis pohon penting dapat tumbuh dengan baik. Melakukan
penanaman dengan pengayaan jenis tanaman tertentu yang telah
hilang, jenis tanaman atau pohon tertentu yang telah hilang harus
ditanam termasuk mendatangkan satwa (hewan) yang selama ini
ada di kawasan yang direstorasi sehingga tercipta habitat yang lebih
beragam.
Diunduh dari: http://hutan-tersisa.blogspot.com/2011/08/restorasi-hutan.html………..
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.HPH RESTORASI EKOSISTEM
Menhut telah menerbitkan surat keputusan pencadangan hak pengusahaan
hutan (HPH) restorasi ekosistem seluas 2,5 juta hektar sebagai bagian sistem
inovasi kehutanan tahun 2010-2014.
HPH restorasi ekosistem DIHARAPKAN menjadi solusi penurunan emisi gas
rumah kaca dari sektor kehutanan, sekaligus menciptakan lapangan kerja dan
usaha. Jadi, business for environment dapat direalisasikan, untuk pangan atau
energi.
HPH restorasi ekosistem merupakan bentuk bisnis kehutanan yang unik karena
investor tidak boleh mengambil hasil hutan kayu. Pemerintah memberi konsesi
satu kawasan hutan terdegradasi kepada investor yang akan membenahi
kerusakan dengan menanami tanaman asli lokal lalu mengambil keuntungan dari
hasil hutan bukan kayu, seperti air, madu, dan ekowisata.
Kemenhut telah menerima permohonan 40 unit HPH restorasi ekosistem seluas
3.942.512 hektar. Sejauh ini, Kemenhut telah menerbitkan 3 unit HPH ekosistem
restorasi seluas 185.005 hektar yang berlokasi di Jambi (46.385 hektar),
Sumatera Selatan (52.170 hektar), dan Kalimantan Timur (86.450 hektar).
Kemhut tengah memproses penerbitan surat keputusan untuk 4 unit lainnya
seluas 251.960 hektar dan telah menilai kesiapan 2 unit seluas 246.755 hektar.
Sebenarnya, banyak investor ingin memperoleh HPH restorasi ekosistem, tetapi
pemerintah ha rus menolak permohonan 22 unit seluas 2.638.535 hektar karena
tidak memenuhi kriteria.
HPH restorasi harus menjadi program unggulan Kemenhut. Program ini
menunjukkan kondisi hutan alam Indonesia yang harus dipulihkan kembali.
Akan tetapi, inovasi ini bukan hal mudah. Kemenhut harus memberi insentif
khusus untuk mendukung kesinambungan investasi HPH restorasi.
Perlu juga inovasi membangun HPH restorasi berbasis masyarakat.
Diunduh dari:
http://bisniskeuangan.kompas.com/read/2011/09/28/22461455/2.5.Juta.Hektar.Hutan.Produks
i.untuk.Restorasi……….. 28/12/2012
KONSEP RESTORASI HUTAN TERPADU
Kawasan hutan yang dapat dimohon untuk areal restorasi
ekosistem diutamakan pada hutan produksi yang tidak
produktif dan dicadangkan atau ditunjuk oleh menteri
kehutanan.
Salah satu bentuk pemulihan ekosistem hutan hingga berfungsi
sebagaimana mestinya di hutan alam produksi adalah melalui
Izin Usaha Pemanfaatan Hasil Hutan Kayu Restorasi Ekosistem
(IUPHHK-RE).
IUPHHK-RE merupakan izin usaha yang diberikan untuk
membangun kawasan dalam hutan alam pada hutan produksi
yang memiliki ekosistem penting sehingga dapat dipertahankan
fungsi dan keterwakilannya.
Izin usaha restorasi ini, dilakukan untuk mempertahankan fungsi
hutan sehingga terpelihara keberadaannya disamping
mengoptimalkan jasa lingkungan dan jasa kawasan pada areal
restorasi.
Kawasan hutan yang dapat dimohon untuk areal restorasi
ekosistem diutamakan pada hutan produksi yang tidak produktif
dan dicadangkan atau ditunjuk oleh menteri kehutanan.
Read more: IUPHHK-RE: Konsep Restorasi Hutan Terpadu
Diunduh dari: http://wartapedia.com/lingkungan/konservasi/7343-iuphhk-re-konseprestorasi-hutan-terpadu.html……….. 28/12/2012
.
Restorasi ekosistem adalah upaya untuk mengembalikan unsur
hayati (flora dan fauna) serta unsur non hayati (tanah dan air)
pada suatu kawasan dengan jenis asli, sehingga tercapai
keseimbangan hayati dan ekosistemnya.
. IUPHHK restorasi ekosistem dalam hutan alam adalah izin
usaha yang diberikan untuk membangun kawasan dalam hutan
alam pada hutan produksi yang memiliki ekosistem penting
sehingga dapat dipertahankan fungsi dan keterwakilannya
melalui kegiatan pemeliharaan, perlindungan dan pemulihan
ekosistem hutan termasuk penanaman, pengayaan,
penjarangan, penangkaran satwa, pelepasliaran flora dan fauna
untuk mengembalikan unsur hayati (flora dan fauna) serta unsur
non hayati (tanah, iklim dan topografi) pada suatu kawasan
kepada jenis yang asli, sehingga tercapai keseimbangan hayati
dan ekosistemnya.
Sistem silvikultur adalah sistem budidaya hutan atau sistem
teknik bercocok tanaman hutan mulai dari memilih benih atau
bibit, menyemai, menanam, memelihara tanaman dan
memanen.
Diunduh dari: http://kehutanan.kalbarprov.go.id/joomla15/index.php?option=com………..
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.
Restorasi hutan merupakan proses pengkondisian ekosistem
(tanah, vegetasi, dan kehidupan liar) untuk mencapai pola dan
profil yang serupa dengan kondisi pada saat sebelum terganggu
komposisi, struktur, dan fungsinya.
Restorasi dilakukan sebagai upaya untuk memaksimalkan
konservasi karagaman hayati dan fungsi ekosistem.
Pohon yang sesuai harus memiliki beberapa kriteria yang
sesuai, yaitu semai dapat beradaptasi dengan mudah di tempat
terbuka, merupakan spesies yang dapat tumbuh dengan cepat,
serta spesies yang dapat berkompetisi dengan rumput liar dan
jenis-jenis gulma lainnya.
Diunduh dari: ……….. 28/12/2012
.. Hutan Harapan, Pionir Restorasi
Hutan Di Dunia
Hutan Harapan merupakan hutan restorasi pertama di Indonesia
dan juga pionir restorasi hutan di dunia. Restorasi merupakan
upaya untuk mengembalikan kondisi hutan yang sudah rusak
menjadi hutan lebat seperti sedia kala. Hal ini membutuhkan
waktu sedikitnya 30 sampai 60 tahun. Selama periode tersebut
tidak dilakukan penebangan pohon.
Setelah melalui survey dan proses yang panjang selama 10
tahun, akhirnya PT Restorasi Ekosistem Indonesia (PT REKI)
mendapatkan hak konsesi penuh untuk mengelola Hutan
Harapan seluas sekitar 100.000 hektar (ha).
“Untuk melakukan restorasi ekosistem hutan memang tidak
gampang, sampai saat ini usaha restorasi belum bisa
menghasilkan keuntungan, di sisi lain banyak kendala besar yang
menghadang di depan mata, seperti para perambah hutan,
illegal logging, kondisi hutan dan lahan kritis yang rusak parah,
dan diperlukan biaya operasional yang sangat besar serta
komitmen yang tinggi,” papar Doktor Biologi lulusan Jerman ini.
Menteri kehutanan, Zulkifli Hasan, menyatakan bahwa pihaknya
telah menargetkan 300.000 ha untuk izin restorasi hutan
produksi dan tak produktif tahun 2010 ini. Target itu, kata dia,
menjadi bagian dari Rencana Strategis Kementerian Kehutanan
2010-2014 yang ditargetkan 2,5 juta ha.
Diunduh dari:
http://vetonews.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=6907:hutan-h………..
Forest restoration
. Forest restoration is defined as “actions to re-instate ecological
processes, which accelerate recovery of forest structure,
ecological functioning and biodiversity levels towards those
typical of climax forest”[1] i.e. the end-stage of natural forest
succession. Climax forests are relatively stable ecosystems that
have developed the maximum biomass, structural complexity
and species diversity that are possible within the limits imposed
by climate and soil and without continued disturbance from
humans (more explanation here). Climax forest is therefore the
target ecosystem, which defines the ultimate aim of forest
restoration. Since climate is a major factor that determines
climax forest composition, global climate change may result in
changing restoration aims.[2]
Forest restoration is a specialized form of reforestation, but it
differs from conventional tree plantations in that its primary
goals are biodiversity recovery and environmental protection
Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest_restoration ……….. 28/12/2012
.
. Scope
Forest restoration may include simply protecting remnant
vegetation (fire prevention, cattle exclusion etc.) or more active
interventions to accelerate natural regeneration,[5] as well as
tree planting and/or sowing seeds (direct seeding) of species
characteristic of the target ecosystem. Tree species planted (or
encouraged to establish) are those that are typical of, or provide
a critical ecological function in, the target ecosystem. However,
wherever people live in or near restoration sites, restoration
projects often include economic species amongst the planted
trees, to yield subsistence or cash-generating products.
Forest restoration is an inclusive process, which depends on
collaboration among a wide range of stakeholders including local
communities, government officials, non-government
organizations, scientists and funding agencies. Its ecological
success is measured in terms of increased biological diversity,
biomass, primary productivity, soil organic matter and waterholding capacity, as well as the return of rare and keystone
species, characteristic of the target ecosystem. Economic indices
of success include the value of forest products and ecological
services generated (e.g. watershed protection, carbon storage
etc.), which ultimately contribute towards poverty reduction.
Payments for such ecological services (PES) and forest products
can provide strong incentives for local people to implement
restoration projects.
Diunduh dari: ……….. 28/12/2012
.
Where is forest restoration appropriate?
Forest restoration is appropriate wherever biodiversity recovery is one
of the main goals of reforestation, such as for wildlife conservation,
environmental protection, eco-tourism or to supply a wide variety of
forest products to local communities. Forests can be restored in a wide
range of circumstances, but degraded sites within protected areas are a
high priority, especially where some climax forest remains as a seed
source within the landscape. Even in protected areas, there are often
large deforested sites: logged over areas or sites formerly cleared for
agriculture. If protected areas are to act as Earth’s last wildlife refuges,
restoration of such areas will be needed.[6][7]
Many restoration projects are now being implemented under the
umbrella of “forest landscape restoration” (FLR),[8] defined as a
“planned process to regain ecological integrity and enhance human
well-being in deforested or degraded landscapes”. FLR recognizes that
forest restoration has social and economic functions. It aims to achieve
the best possible compromise between meeting both conservation
goals and the needs of rural communities.[9] As human pressure on
landscapes increases, forest restoration will most commonly be
practiced within a mosaic of other forms of forest management, to
meet the economic needs of local people.
8.
9.
Mansourian, S., D. Vallauri, and N. Dudley (eds.) (in co-operation with WWF
International), 2005. Forest Restoration in Landscapes: Beyond Planting Trees. Springer,
New York
Reitbergen-McCraken, J., S. Maginnis A. Sarre, 2007. The Forest Landscape Restoration
Handbook. Earthscan, London, 175 pp.
Diunduh dari: ……….. 28/12/2012
.
Is tree planting essential to restore forest ecosystems?
Not always. A lot can be achieved by studying how forests
regenerate naturally, identifying the factors that limit
regeneration and devising methods to overcome them. These
can include weeding and adding fertilizer around natural tree
seedlings, preventing fire, removing cattle and so on. This is
"accelerated" or "assisted" natural regeneration.[10] It is simple
and cost-effective, but it can only operate on trees that are
already present, mostly light-loving pioneer species. Such tree
species are not usually those that comprise climax forests, but
they can foster recolonization of the site by shade-tolerant
climax forest tree species, via natural seed dispersal from
remnant forest. Because this is a slow process, biodiversity
recovery can usually be accelerated by planting some climax
forest tree species, especially large-seeded, poorly dispersed
species. It is not feasible to plant all the tree species that may
have formerly grown in the original primary forest and it is
usually unnecessary to do so, if the framework species
method[11][12] can be used.
10. Shono, K., E. A. Cadaweng and P. B. Durst, 2007. Application of Assisted Natural
Regeneration to Restore Degraded Tropical Forestlands. Restoration Ecology, 15(4):
620–626.
11. Elliott S, Navakitbumrung P, Kuarak C, Zankum S, Anusarnsunthorn V, Blakesley D, 2003.
Selecting framework tree species for restoring seasonally dry tropical forests in
northern Thailand based on field performance. For Ecol Manage 184:177-191
12. Goosem, S. and N. I. J. Tucker, 1995. Repairing the Rainforest. Wet Tropics Management
Authority, Cairns, Australia. Pp 72.
Diunduh dari: ……….. 28/12/2012
Reforestation
Reforestation is the natural or intentional restocking of existing
forests and woodlands that have been depleted, usually through
deforestation.[1] Reforestation can be used to improve the
quality of human life by soaking up pollution and dust from the
air, rebuild natural habitats and ecosystems, mitigate global
warming since forests facilitate biosequestration of atmospheric
carbon dioxide, and harvest for resources, particularly timber.
The term reforestation is similar to afforestation, the process of
restoring and recreating areas of woodlands or forests that may
have existed long ago but were deforested or otherwise
removed at some point in the past. Sometimes the term reafforestation is used to distinguish between the original forest
cover and the later re-growth of forest to an area. Special tools,
e.g. tree planting bar, are used to make planting of trees easier
and faster.
Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reforestation ……….. 28/12/2012
.
Tree planting is the process of transplanting tree seedlings,
generally for forestry, land reclamation, or landscaping
purposes. It differs from the transplantation of larger trees in
arboriculture, and from the lower cost but slower and less
reliable distribution of tree seeds.
In silviculture the activity is known as reforestation, or
afforestation, depending on whether the area being planted has
or has not recently been forested. It involves planting seedlings
over an area of land where the forest has been harvested or
damaged by fire or disease or insects. Tree planting is carried
out in many different parts of the world, and strategies may
differ widely across nations and regions and among individual
reforestation companies. Tree planting is grounded in forest
science, and if performed properly can result in the successful
regeneration of a deforested area. Reforestation is the
commercial logging industry's answer to the large-scale
destruction of old growth forests, but a planted forest rarely
replicates the biodiversity and complexity of a natural
forest.[citation needed]
Because trees remove carbon dioxide from the air as they grow,
tree planting can be used as a geoengineering technique to
remove CO2 from the atmosphere.
Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treeplanting ……….. 28/12/2012
.
Primary production is the production of organic compounds
from atmospheric or aquatic carbon dioxide. It may occur
through the process of photosynthesis, using light as a source of
energy, or chemosynthesis, using the oxidation or reduction of
chemical compounds as a source of energy. Almost all life on
earth is directly or indirectly reliant on primary production. The
organisms responsible for primary production are known as
primary producers or autotrophs, and form the base of the food
chain. In terrestrial ecoregions, these are mainly plants, while in
aquatic ecoregions algae are primarily responsible. Primary
production is distinguished as either net or gross, the former
accounting for losses to processes such as cellular respiration,
the latter not.
Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_productivity ……….. 28/12/2012
.
. Primary production is the production of chemical energy in
organic compounds by living organisms. The main source of this
energy is sunlight but a minute fraction of primary production is
driven by lithotrophic organisms using the chemical energy of
inorganic molecules.
Regardless of its source, this energy is used to synthesize
complex organic molecules from simpler inorganic compounds
such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). The following two
equations are simplified representations of photosynthesis (top)
and (one form of) chemosynthesis (bottom):
CO2 + H2O + light CH2O + O2 CO2 + O2 + 4 H2S CH2O + 4 S + 3 H2O
In both cases, the end point is reduced carbohydrate (CH2O),
typically molecules such as glucose or other sugars. These
relatively simple molecules may be then used to further
synthesise more complicated molecules, including proteins,
complex carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids, or be respired
to perform work. Consumption of primary producers by
heterotrophic organisms, such as animals, then transfers these
organic molecules (and the energy stored within them) up the
food web, fueling all of the Earth's living systems.
Diunduh dari: ……….. 28/12/2012
.
. GPP and NPP
Gross primary production (GPP) is the rate at which an
ecosystem's producers capture and store a given amount of
chemical energy as biomass in a given length of time. Some
fraction of this fixed energy is used by primary producers for
cellular respiration and maintenance of existing tissues (i.e.,
"growth respiration" and "maintenance respiration").[1] The
remaining fixed energy (i.e., mass of photosynthate) is referred
to as net primary production (NPP).
NPP = GPP - respiration [by plants] Net primary production is the
rate at which all the plants in an ecosystem produce net useful
chemical energy; it is equal to the difference between the rate
at which the plants in an ecosystem produce useful chemical
energy (GPP) and the rate at which they use some of that energy
during respiration. Some net primary production goes toward
growth and reproduction of primary producers, while some is
consumed by herbivores.
Both gross and net primary production are in units of mass /
area / time. In terrestrial ecosystems, mass of carbon per unit
area per year (g C/m2/yr) is most often used as the unit of
measurement.
Diunduh dari: ……….. 28/12/2012
.terrestrial production
. On the land, almost all primary production is now performed
by vascular plants, with a small fraction coming from algae and
non-vascular plants such as mosses and liverworts. Before the
evolution of vascular plants, non-vascular plants likely played a
more significant role. Primary production on land is a function of
many factors, but principally local hydrology and temperature
(the latter covaries to an extent with light, the source of energy
for photosynthesis). While plants cover much of the Earth's
surface, they are strongly curtailed wherever temperatures are
too extreme or where necessary plant resources (principally
water and light) are limiting, such as deserts or polar regions.
Water is "consumed" in plants by the processes of
photosynthesis (see above) and transpiration. The latter process
(which is responsible for about 90% of water use) is driven by
the evaporation of water from the leaves of plants. Transpiration
allows plants to transport water and mineral nutrients from the
soil to growth regions, and also cools the plant. Diffusion of
water out of a leaf, the force that drives transpiration, is
regulated by structures known as stomata. These also regulate
the diffusion of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into the
leaf, such that decreasing water loss (by partially closing
stomata) also decreases carbon dioxide gain. Certain plants use
alternative forms of photosynthesis, called Crassulacean acid
metabolism (CAM) and C4. These employ physiological and
anatomical adaptations to increase water-use efficiency and
allow increased primary production to take place under
conditions
that would normally limit carbon fixation by C3 plants
Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_productivity ……….. 28/12/2012
(the majority of plant species).
keystone species
. A keystone species is a species that has a disproportionately
large effect on its environment relative to its abundance.[1] Such
species play a critical role in maintaining the structure of an
ecological community, affecting many other organisms in an
ecosystem and helping to determine the types and numbers of
various other species in the community.
The role that a keystone species plays in its ecosystem is
analogous to the role of a keystone in an arch. While the
keystone is under the least pressure of any of the stones in an
arch, the arch still collapses without it. Similarly, an ecosystem
may experience a dramatic shift if a keystone species is
removed, even though that species was a small part of the
ecosystem by measures of biomass or productivity. It has
become a very popular concept in conservation biology.
A classic keystone species is a small predator that prevents a
particular herbivorous species from eliminating dominant plant
species. Since the prey numbers are low, the keystone predator
numbers can be even lower and still be effective. Yet without
the predators, the herbivorous prey would explode in numbers,
wipe out the dominant plants, and dramatically alter the
character of the ecosystem. The exact scenario changes in each
example, but the central idea remains that through a chain of
interactions, a non-abundant species has an out-sized impact on
ecosystem functions.
Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keystone_species ……….. 28/12/2012
.. Payments for ecosystem services (PES),
. Payments for ecosystem services (PES), also known as
payments for environmental services (or benefits), is the
practice of offering incentives to farmers or landowners in
exchange for managing their land to provide some sort of
ecological service. They have been defined as "a transparent
system for the additional provision of environmental services
through conditional payments to voluntary providers."[1] These
programmes promote the conservation of natural resources in
the marketplace.
Ecosystem services have no standardized definition but might
broadly be called “the benefits of nature to households,
communities, and economies”[2] or, more simply, “the good
things nature does."[3] Twenty-four specific ecosystem services
were identified and assessed by the Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment, a 2005 UN-sponsored report designed to assess the
state of the world's ecosystems. The report defined the broad
categories of ecosystem services as food production (in the form
of crops, livestock, capture fisheries, aquaculture, and wild
foods), fiber (in the form of timber, cotton, hemp, and silk),
genetic resources (biochemicals, natural medicines, and
pharmaceuticals), fresh water, air quality regulation, climate
regulation, water regulation, erosion regulation, water
purification and waste treatment, disease regulation, pest
regulation, pollination, natural hazard regulation, and cultural
services (including spiritual, religious, and aesthetic values,
recreation and ecotourism).[4] Notably, however, there is a “big
three” among these
24 services which are currently receiving
Diunduh dari: ……….. 28/12/2012
the most money and interest worldwide. These are climate
Forest landscape restoration
Forest landscape restoration or FLR is defined as “a planned
process to regain ecological integrity and enhance human wellbeing in deforested or degraded landscapes”.[1] It comprises
tools and procedures to integrate site-level forest restoration
actions with desirable landscape-level objectives, which are
decided upon via various participatory mechanisms among
stakeholders. The concept has grown out of collaboration
among some of the world's major international conservation
organizations including the International Union for Conservation
of Nature IUCN), the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and
the International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO).
The concept of FLR was conceived to bring about compromises
between meeting the needs of both humans and wildlife, by
restoring a range of forest functions at the landscape level. It
includes actions to strengthen the resilience and ecological
integrity of landscapes and thereby keep future management
options open. The participation of local communities is central
to the concept, because they play a critical role in shaping the
landscape and gain significant benefits from restored forest
resources. Therefore, FLR activities are inclusive and
participatory.
1. Reitbergen-McCraken, J., S. Maginnis A. Sarre, 2007. The Forest Landscape
Restoration Handbook. Earthscan, London, 175 pp
Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest_landscape_restoration ……….. 28/12/2012
.
. Desirable outcomes of FLR
The desirable outcomes of an FLR program usually comprise a
combination of the following, depending on local needs and
aspirations:
identification of the root causes of forest degradation and prevention
of further deforestation,
positive engagement of people in the planning of forest restoration,
resolution of land-use conflicts and agreement on benefit-sharing
systems,
compromises over land-use trade-offs that are acceptable to the
majority of stakeholders,
a repository of biological diversity of both local and global value,
delivery of a range of utilitarian benefits to local communities including:
a reliable supply of clean water,
environmental protection particularly watershed services (e.g.
reduced soil erosion, lower landslide risk, flood/drought mitigation
etc.),
a sustainable supply of a diverse range of forest products including
foods, medicines, firewood etc.,
monetary income from various sources e.g. ecotourism, carbon
trading via the REDD+ mechanism and from payments for other
environmental services (PES)[1]
1.
Mansourian, S., D. Vallauri, and N. , Dudley (eds.) (in co-operation with
WWF International), Forest Restoration in Landscapes: Beyond Planting
Trees. Springer, New York.
Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest_landscape_restoration……….. 28/12/2012
FLR actions
FLR combines several existing principles and techniques of
development, conservation and natural resource management,
such as landscape character assessment, participatory rural
appraisal, adaptive management etc. within a clear and
consistent evaluation and learning framework. An FLR program
may comprise various forestry practices on different sites within
the landscape, depending on local environmental and
socioeconomic factors. These may include protection and
management of secondary and degraded primary forests,
standard forest restoration techniques such as "assisted" or
"accelerated" natural regeneration (ANR) and the planting of
framework tree species to restore degraded areas, as well as
conventional tree plantations and agroforestry systems to meet
more immediate monetary needs [1]
1. Elliott, S., D. Blakesley and K. Hardwick, in press. Restoring Tropical Forests: a
Practical Guide. Kew Publications, London
Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest_landscape_restoration……….. 28/12/2012
.
Diunduh dari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ………..
28/12/2012
WHAT IS
ECOLOGICAL
RESTORATION?
??
Diunduh dari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ………..
28/12/2012
What is Ecological
Restoration?
The Society of Ecological
Restoration (SER) defines
ecological restoration in its
mission statement as “the
process of assisting the
recovery and management of
ecological integrity. Ecological
integrity includes a critical
range of variability in
biodiversity, ecological
processes and structures,
regional and historical context,
and sustainable cultural
practices” (Society for
Diunduh dari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ………..
28/12/2012
Ecological Restoration
Need to identify ecological
restoration goal, identify the
restoration potential of a
site, how to conduct the
restoration, and how to
evaluate the success of
restoration.
* REFERENCE
CONDITIONS
Diunduh dari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ………..
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Reference Conditi
The range of historical or
natural variability in
ecological structures and
processes that reflect
evolutionary history,
disturbance regimes, and
abiotic and biotic conditions
(Covington et al. 1997).
Diunduh dari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ………..
28/12/2012
HOW DO YOU
DETERMINE
REFERENCE
CONDITIONS??
?
Diunduh dari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ………..
28/12/2012
PONDEROSA PINE
•Ponderosa pine
(Pinus ponderosa)
trees grow in every
state found west of
the Great Plains
•In Colorado,
ponderosa pine
trees are commonly
found on mesas to
the montane from
5,000-9000 ft
•In the San Juan
Mountains, pure
stands of ponderosa
pine can be found
on sandstone
Diunduh dari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP...
substrates
from 28/12/2012 Drawing by Robert Petty………..
in “Graced
WRITTEN RECORDS
Lt. Edward Beale, 1857 (northern
Arizona) “A vast forest of gigantic
pines, intersected frequently with open
glades, sprinkled all over with
mountains, meadows, and wide
savannas, and covered with the richest
grasses, was traversed by our party for
many days.”
C. DuBois, 1903 (San Juan Mountains)
“Throughout the [“bull” or ponderosa
pine] type there is good cattle range,
consisting of blue-stem grass beneath
the trees and bunch grass in the parks.
The underbrush is very heavy, chiefly
oak brush, choke-cherry, scarlett
thorn,
and wild rose. Reproduction of
Diunduh dari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ………..
28/12/2012
OTHER CONTEMPORARY
*SPECIES COMPOSITION AND
STRUCTURE
*SOIL SEED BANK
*BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC SOIL
CHARACTERISTICS
*DEAD/DOWN WOODY
MATERIALS
*TRADITIONAL ECOLOGICAL
KNOWLEDGE
Diunduh dari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ………..
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REFERENCE CONDITI
SOUTHWESTERN PONDER
Fire- Key disturbance that regulates
ponderosa pine forests
*Low intensity fires (2-20 year
interval)
*Large diameter trees interspersed
with grassy meadows
*Diverse, productive herbaceous
understory
Diunduh dari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ………..
28/12/2012
Diunduh dari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ………..
28/12/2012
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28/12/2012
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WHO USES THIS INFORM
Governmental Agencies-National
Park Service, Forest Service, BLM
State and Local Government- e.g.,
Montezuma County (Ponderosa
Pines Project), Boulder Mountain
Parks
Conservation Organizations-The
Nature Conservancy, Grand Canyon
Forest Trust
General Public-e.g., where to build a
house (fire-prone environment,
floodplain, etc.), where to recreate,
forming opinions on public land
management
actions
Diunduh dari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ………..
28/12/2012
GOALS FOR
LECTURE
1. You will be able to define
ecological restoration.
2. You will be able to define
reference conditions and how
reference conditions are
determined.
3. You will be able to discuss
reference conditions in the
context of southwestern
ponderosa pine forests.
Diunduh dari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ………..
28/12/2012
Tree Canopy
Data for the
Gus Pearson
Natural Area,
Arizona for
1876 and 1990
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Components of Ecological R
Four Main Components:
1) Cultural
* Native Americans played an
important role in the
evolutionary history of many
ecosystems through their
interactions with the natural
world.
* Native Americans used fire as
a tool for hunting,
promoting/discouraging
specific plant species which
differs from lightning fires in
seasonality, frequency, and
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28/12/2012
Components of Ecological R
Four Main Components:
2) Economical
* How much will the restoration
project cost to plan, implement,
and monitor?
* What are the economical
benefits from restoration
(immediate and long-term)?
Diunduh dari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ………..
28/12/2012
Components of Ecological R
Four Main Components:
3) Social
* Need to look at restoration as
an outcome of complex
interactions between nature
and society and divergent
social and political views within
society.
* Need to develop common
ground among all participants
when identifying and planning
restoration projects.
Diunduh dari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ………..
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Components of Ecological R
Four Main Components:
4) Ecological
* Need to identify ecological
restoration goal, identify the
restoration potential of a site,
how to conduct the restoration,
and how to evaluate the
success of restoration.
* Need to identify a spatial and
temporal context for ecological
restoration.
* REFERENCE CONDITIONS
Diunduh dari: faculty.fortlewis.edu/korb_j/.../ecological%20restoration%202011.PP... ………..
28/12/2012
.
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Restoration Ecology
• Due to the severe impact
humans have already inflicted
on the landscape and the
expensive cost of real
estate, restoring a landscape
may be more feasible than
other options
• This is a relatively new field
and many advances have been
made
• However, we rarely restore
something to its former glory
and functionality
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Restoration Ecology
• May be able to trace
restoration back to Aldo
Leopold in the 1930’s at the
UW arboretum (120 ha
forest)
• RE draws upon many
disciplines and subdisciplines
of the natural sciences
including landscape ecology,
hydrology, geomorphology, soil
science, geochemistry, animal
behavior, pop biology,
theoretical biology, invasion
ecology and evolutionary ecol
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Restoration Ecology
• Specifically, RE is “the
process of intentionally
altering a site to establish a
defined, indigenous, historic
ecosystem”
• The goal is to emulate the
structure, function, diversity
and dynamics of the specific
ecosystem
• Or…moving a degraded system
back towards one of greater
structural and functional
diversity
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Restoration Ecology
• It is an iterative process:
– 1) examines preexisting,
historic, and current reference
conditions prior to designing the
plan
– 2) developing a restoration plan
– 3) obtain permits, do the work
– 4) implementing plan, although
complex (e.g. hydrology, soil,
plant & animal responses)
– 5) monitoring the site
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Restoration Ecology
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Restoration Ecology
• RE may take many forms:
restoration, enhancement,
reclamation, re-creation,
rehabilitation, augmentation,
and translocation
• Rehabilitation is simply
improving degraded habitat,
maybe not restoring it
• Reclamation may be
stabilization of the land
and/or minimizing further
degradation
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Restoration Ecology
• Re-creation is an attempt to
return to historic condition,
accuracy…
• Replacement may recreate a
site, which may not be
historically accurate
• Enhancement or augmentation
are attempting to add to the
degraded condition, but not
fully functional
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Restoration Ecology
• The majority of restoration
activities target the plant
community…why?
• When might animals be
involved?
• Full restoration at all levels
has never been attempted,
although it is the goal
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Restoration Ecology &
Conservation
• RE is a relatively young
science and as such, has both
advocates and critics
• Some argue it is important
and a good compromise while
others suggest it is wasteful
and expensive
• There are some legal
underpinning such as the Clean
Water Act which requires
restoration
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Restoration Ecology &
Conservation
• A potential benefit of RE is
the opportunity to conduct
ecological studies, especially
in community ecology, invasive
biology, succession biology
• A potential negative is that
many systems are now viewed
as ‘expendable’ or ‘replaceable’
on another site
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Restoration Ecology &
Conservation
• Steps in designing and
implementing ecological
restorations
• Goals and design should be
reviewed and revised as data
on site conditions are
collected, community concerns
addressed, and as the
constructed restoration
evolves
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Restoration Ecology &
Conservation
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Restoration Ecology
• Site assessment is the first
step, usually in the form of
surveys and then exploring
the literature (published
papers, maps, reports)
• Legalities must be determined
• Assess environmental history
of site
• If not available, contemporary
comparisons maybe
appropriate
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Restoration Ecology
• RE is an inherently subjective
process and determining
‘success’ may require the
establishment of goals
• Goals will depend upon local
constraints, objectives, and
context of participants
– Restored wetland…farmer vs.
duck hunter
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Restoration Ecology
• Restoration design requires
multidisciplinary approach
(genes to ecosystem, as well
as natural sciences)
• Plans should dictate the
physical transformation
proposed for the site and the
desired outcome (target
species)
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Restoration Ecology
• There are many ways to
implement a design, depending
on time, money, labor,
practicality
• Getting as many people
involved in the implementation
will get locals to buy into the
restoration effort
• Proper documentation and
design can subsequently serve
as an experiment
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Restoration Ecology
• ER are long-term propositions
and proper monitoring
becomes less-likely
• For adaptive management, it is
necessary
• Frequently disturbing site will
release or open community to
‘weedy’ species
• Compliance vs. scientific
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Restoration Ecology
• Restoration challenges are
numerous as we are generally
dealing with dynamic, complex,
and unique systems
• Furthermore, the site may
have many limitations
(landscape context, size,
heterogeneity, plus more…)
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Restoration Ecology
• It may be difficult to
properly address restoration
because we lack knowledge
• B&M have relatively good
databases, but most other
groups lack good information
• Even when we know the
organisms (e.g. clapper rail) we
can screw up (CS 15.1);
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Restoration Ecology
• When
we
identif
y
knowle
dge
gaps,
we may
be
able to
then
fill
them
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Restoration Ecology
• For example, what if
herbivory was limiting
reestablishment of native sp
in a grassland? What
measures could we take?
• What about if N is limiting?
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Restoration Ecology
• Restoration is frequently
restricted to the plant
community
• However, even if animals are
the focus of the conservation
effort, restoring habitat may
be the best action (but see CS
15.4 & 15.5)
• Furthermore, a ‘functioning’
ecosystem should ‘trickle-up’
and eventually affect the
entire community
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Restoration Ecology
• Population genetics can play an
important role in RE. How?
• Does this change with a
relatively large disturbance
and large distribution
project?
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Restoration Ecology
• Restoration effects that
focus on a small scale may
succeed in the short term, but
fail in the longer because the
larger ecological context
required to allow these
restoration efforts to be
self-sustaining is either not
present, too degraded,
operating at too small a scale
• Some times, some things may
not even be able to be
addressed (e.g. hydrology)
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Restoration Ecology
• Many local restoration
projects cannot draw on
larger or regional populations
to recruit from and
consequently, may not reflect
historical conditions
• It may be necessary to
restore them to a stable, but
less diverse current state
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Restoration Ecology
• While RE claims to be
interdisciplinary, in reality it
may focus on a single sp or
single environmental factor
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Restoration Ecology
• Most animal restoration attempt
to bring individuals back to a
site rather than foster or
enhance a preexisting pop(n)
• Most animal reintroductions
have been charismatic
megafauna (e.g. wolf, CA condor,
buffalo, beaver)
• The Reintroduction Specialist
Group of the World
Conservation Union’s (IUCN)
created guidelines for
reintroductions
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Restoration Ecology
• Step 1: conduct a feasibility
study (autecology, availability
of stockers, fulfilling same
functional role)
• Step 2: select sites w/in
historic range, but habitat not
vulnerable to same threats,
and is protected
• Step 3: ID and evaluate stock
(genetics)
• Step 4: evaluate social,
political, and economic
conditions for long-term
survival
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Restoration Ecology
• Step 5: involve all
stakeholders and get proper
financing; design as
experiment to judge success
• Step 6: post-release
monitoring should be done
using an adaptive model
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Restoration Ecology
• Some of the common problems
associated with
reintroductions include: high
juvenile mortality, loss of rare
alleles and genetic diversity,
reproductive dysfunction, and
other problems associated
with inbreeding of small
populations
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Environmental Regulations
and Restoration
• Restoration can be expensive
(e.g. $3ft2 or $130K/acre)
and many potential pitfalls
exist
• Regulation in the US
– Inspired by the ‘dust bowl’, the
Natural Resources Conservation
Service develops and
disseminates comprehensive
info on management techniques
for soil and water
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Environmental Regulations
and Restoration
• In 1969, NEPA was passed and
proactively established
environmental standards
• Nixon created the EPA to
coordinate and oversee NEPA
• Wetland restoration is in
large part a result of the
Clean Water Act (’72) which
dictated “no net loss of areas
and/or function”
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Environmental Regulations
and Restoration
• Other significant laws: ESA
(’73)
– “to provide a means whereby
the ecosystems upon which
endangered ad threatened
species depend may be
conserved and to provide a
program for the conservation of
such endangered and
threatened species”
• Unfortunately, the ESA allows
the taking of plants, but not
animals (unless endangered
animal present)…but there are
some state laws protecting
end plants
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Environmental Regulations
and Restoration
• For those projects that are
expected to impact
endangered species,
mitigation of impacted habitat
may be required
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Environmental Regulations
and Restoration
• Surface Mining Control and
Reclamation Act (1977) attempt
to protect the adverse impact
of environmental surface mining
(particularly coal)
• In theory, mines must commit to
returning the land to pre-mine
conditions
• Unfortunately, this does not
apply to any pre-1977 site, as
well as many other types of
minerals (e.g. gold, silver, lead)
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
Environmental Regulations
and Restoration
• There is a great deal of
variation from one country to
another regarding the
regulations of mining
• The United Nations
Conference on Human
Environment (1972) attempted
to stop the impact of mining
• In the Rio de Janeiro (’92)
summit they specifically
addressed reclamation of
degraded habitats
Diunduh dari: blue.utb.edu/elinder/CB_chap15.ppt……….. 28/12/2012
.
Diunduh dari: www.clt.astate.edu/rgrippo/Ecosystem%20Restoration.ppt ……….. 28/12/2012
Conceptual issues
After manipulation of a natural
system, have three choices:
Diunduh dari: www.clt.astate.edu/rgrippo/Ecosystem%20Restoration.ppt ……….. 28/12/2012
Diunduh dari: www.clt.astate.edu/rgrippo/Ecosystem%20Restoration.ppt ……….. 28/12/2012
Ecosystem Restoration
Restoration – bring back to pre-disturbance
condition
Rehabilitation – partial replacement of original
ecosystem
Enhancement – alternative ecosystem
Note: to understand above scenarios of
recovery have to consider two biological
factors of colonization and succession
Diunduh dari: www.clt.astate.edu/rgrippo/Ecosystem%20Restoration.ppt ……….. 28/12/2012
Colonization and
Succession
- Both are ecosystem changes with time
1.
Colonization – arrival of new species in an
empty patch
Colonization of “bare” areas based on
MacArthur and Wilson theory of island
biogeography  CONSIDER DENUDED
PATCHES AS ISLANDS
Ex. Clear-cuts, strip mine are islands in a “sea”
of mixed deciduous forest
Diunduh dari: www.clt.astate.edu/rgrippo/Ecosystem%20Restoration.ppt ……….. 28/12/2012
Seq
S = Seq (1-e -Gt)
∆S = colonization rate
G = ____
Species (s)
∆t
Time (t)
1. Number of species depends on colonization
rate (G)
2. G starts out high, gets smaller and smaller
3. Colonization rate based on two relationships
Diunduh dari: www.clt.astate.edu/rgrippo/Ecosystem%20Restoration.ppt ……….. 28/12/2012
(mainland, deciduous forest)
Species source
inhospitable
terrain
“islands”
(clear-cut, toxic
waste site, strip
mine)
▲ Longer distance from source (mainland) = lower
# of species
Diunduh dari: www.clt.astate.edu/rgrippo/Ecosystem%20Restoration.ppt ……….. 28/12/2012
inhospitable
terrain
Larger patches = higher probability of being “hit” by
propagules
▲ Increased size/area = increased # of species on islands
Diunduh dari: www.clt.astate.edu/rgrippo/Ecosystem%20Restoration.ppt ……….. 28/12/2012
Diunduh dari: www.clt.astate.edu/rgrippo/Ecosystem%20Restoration.ppt ……….. 28/12/2012
Seq
Diunduh dari: www.clt.astate.edu/rgrippo/Ecosystem%20Restoration.ppt ……….. 28/12/2012
Factors Affecting Colonization
Rates
Immigration
Extinction
Proximity to source
Residual disturbance,
toxics
Kind of organism
(vagility)
Competition
Reproductive rate (rvs K-selection)
Habitat diversity and
quality
Air, water currents
(rafting)
Generalist/Specialist
Note: once reach equilibrium  dynamics become interactive =
succession
Diunduh dari: www.clt.astate.edu/rgrippo/Ecosystem%20Restoration.ppt ……….. 28/12/2012
Non-interactive
succession
Interactive =
Species (s)
Seq
Time (t)
Diunduh dari: www.clt.astate.edu/rgrippo/Ecosystem%20Restoration.ppt ……….. 28/12/2012
Succession
• Orderly change in community
composition over time
• Usually follows colonization 
especially studied in plant
communities
• Two models
– relay floristics
– initial floristics
Diunduh dari: www.clt.astate.edu/rgrippo/Ecosystem%20Restoration.ppt ……….. 28/12/2012
Weeds |
Grassland
| Shrubland
|
Species
Crop
Forest
Abandonment
Relay floristics
Years
Diunduh dari: www.clt.astate.edu/rgrippo/Ecosystem%20Restoration.ppt ……….. 28/12/2012
Weeds |
Grassland
| Shrubland
|
Species
Crop
Forest
Abandonment
Initial floristics
Years
Diunduh dari: www.clt.astate.edu/rgrippo/Ecosystem%20Restoration.ppt ……….. 28/12/2012
Implications for Reserve Design
better
worse
A
B
C
D
E
F
Diunduh dari: www.clt.astate.edu/rgrippo/Ecosystem%20Restoration.ppt ……….. 28/12/2012
Significance to restoration
of altered ecosystems
• Relay floristics – ongoing process
based on external input
• Initial floristics – happens all at once
based on internal input
▲Might have to manage system to help
recovery
- stock fish
- soil stabilization with annual
plants
- etc.
Diunduh dari: www.clt.astate.edu/rgrippo/Ecosystem%20Restoration.ppt ……….. 28/12/2012
.
Diunduh dari: www.zo.utexas.edu/courses/stuart/301Msp10RestoreEcol2.ppt ……….. 28/12/2012
Restoration Ecology- human
involvement in recovering from a
disturbance.
Fig 56.21
Diunduh dari: www.zo.utexas.edu/courses/stuart/301Msp10RestoreEcol2.ppt ……….. 28/12/2012
Enhancement of Biodiversity and
Ecosystem Services by Ecological
Restoration: A Meta-Analysis
J M Rey Benayas, A C Newton, A Diaz, J M Bullock
Science 28 August 2009: Vol. 325. no. 5944, pp. 1121 – 1124
Looked at the results of 89
different ecological restorations.
Diunduh dari: www.zo.utexas.edu/courses/stuart/301Msp10RestoreEcol2.ppt ……….. 28/12/2012
Types of Disturbances:
Cessation of prescribed burning; Cultivation
and cropping; Disturbance, excavation, or
burial of Substrate; Eutrophication;
Hydrological disruption; Invasion by nonnative species; Logging of trees; Overgrazing; Removal of carnivores or herbivores;
Soil contamination
Restoration action:
Cessation of degrading action only (passive
restoration); Extirpation of damaging species
(including non-natives); Nutrient removal;
Planting of forbs or grasses; Planting of
trees; Reinstatement of burning;
Reintroduction of herbivores or carnivores;
Remodeling of topography; Soil
amendments
Tbl 1: Enhancement of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services by Ecological
Restoration: A Meta-Analysis
J M Rey Benayas, A C Newton, A Diaz, J M Bullock
Diunduh 28
dari:
www.zo.utexas.edu/courses/stuart/301Msp10RestoreEcol2.ppt
Science
August
2009: Vol. 325. no. 5944, pp. 1121 - 1124 ……….. 28/12/2012
Restoring
ecosystems
can also be
seen as
directly
benefiting
people,
“Restoration
Marketplace
”
Restoration
Restoration of Ecosystem Services for Environmental Markets
M A Palmer and S Filoso Science 31 July 2009: Vol. 325. no. 5940, pp. 575 Diunduh dari: www.zo.utexas.edu/courses/stuart/301Msp10RestoreEcol2.ppt ……….. 28/12/2012
576
“Restoration
Marketplace
”
Might lead
to substandard
restoration
Restoration
Restoration of Ecosystem Services for Environmental Markets
M A Palmer and S Filoso Science 31 July 2009: Vol. 325. no. 5940, pp. 575 Diunduh dari: www.zo.utexas.edu/courses/stuart/301Msp10RestoreEcol2.ppt ……….. 28/12/2012
576
What limits the success of
restoration?
One problem... Invasive Species
Diunduh dari: www.zo.utexas.edu/courses/stuart/301Msp10RestoreEcol2.ppt ……….. 28/12/2012
What limits the success of
restoration?
One problem... Invasive Species
...biotic thresholds resulting from
species invasions are likely to be
difficult to reverse and have longterm consequences for
restoration projects.
Species Invasions and the Limits to Restoration: Learning
from the New Zealand Experience
David A. Norton Science 31 July 2009: Vol. 325. no. 5940, pp.
569 - 571
Diunduh dari: www.zo.utexas.edu/courses/stuart/301Msp10RestoreEcol2.ppt ……….. 28/12/2012
Invasive
species can
disrupt an
ecosystem
CB 55.6
Diunduh dari: www.zo.utexas.edu/courses/stuart/301Msp10RestoreEcol2.ppt ……….. 28/12/2012
The brown tree
snake (Boiga
irregularis)
• Its native in Australia and was
introduced to Guam accidentally in
the 1950’s
• Overall responsible for the extinction
of 3 out of 4 seabirds; 9 out of 13
forest birds; 3-5 out 12 reptile
species on the Island of Guam.
• This snake caused the extirpation or
serious reduction of most of the
island's 25 resident bird species on
the main island of Guam.
Diunduh dari: www.zo.utexas.edu/courses/stuart/301Msp10RestoreEcol2.ppt ……….. 28/12/2012
Nile Perch (Lates
niloticus)
• Introduced to Lake Victoria in
1954 to increase fish yield
• Caused extinction of 200+
endemic fish species through
predation, and competition
• Fish caused indirect increased
erosion on land, causing higher
nutrient levels in the lake.
Diunduh dari: www.zo.utexas.edu/courses/stuart/301Msp10RestoreEcol2.ppt ……….. 28/12/2012
Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia
crassipes)
• Introduced as ornamental plant
around the world
• Now in 50 countries on 5 continents
including US
• In California it replaced the native
pennywort (Hydrocotyle umbellata)
which occupies a similar habitat,
leading to a marked decrease in
invertebrate communities
• Limits water transport, reduces
oxygen and light levels in the water
Diunduh dari: www.zo.utexas.edu/courses/stuart/301Msp10RestoreEcol2.ppt ……….. 28/12/2012
Zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha)
• Spread from its native range in
the Baltic Sea via ballast water
• Spreads in Europe and North
America
• Kills native molluscs, changes
ecosystems, and damages
infrastructure
• Estimated annual damage in US
Diunduh dari: www.zo.utexas.edu/courses/stuart/301Msp10RestoreEcol2.ppt
………..
28/12/2012
Napela T.F.,
Schloesser,
D.W., 1992
Diunduh dari: www.zo.utexas.edu/courses/stuart/301Msp10RestoreEcol2.ppt ……….. 28/12/2012
How Many Invasive Species Are
There in Texas?
 67 terrestrial plants
 12 aquatic/wetland plants
 10 mammals
 4 birds
 7 fishes
 11 insects
 11 mollusks and crustaceans
Diunduh dari: www.zo.utexas.edu/courses/stuart/301Msp10RestoreEcol2.ppt ……….. 28/12/2012
Hydrilla verticillata
Aquatic invader covering nearly
100,000 surface acres of water in
Texas.
Spreads rapidly, in one Texas lake it
covered 23 acres in 1999 but over 200
in 2000.
Depletes water of oxygen and blocks
sunlight killing off many native plants
and animal species.
Diunduh dari: www.zo.utexas.edu/courses/stuart/301Msp10RestoreEcol2.ppt ……….. 28/12/2012
Ecological Restoration benefits on
a large scale
Restoration of the Mississippi
Delta: Lessons from Hurricanes
Katrina and Rita
JW
Day, Jr et al.Science 23 March 2007: Vol. 315. no. 5819, pp.
Diunduh dari: www.zo.utexas.edu/courses/stuart/301Msp10RestoreEcol2.ppt ……….. 28/12/2012
1679 - 1684
Storm surge, damage, and deaths
were less where coastal wetlands
are intact
Restoration of the Mississippi Delta: Lessons from
Hurricanes Katrina and Rita
J W Day, Jr et al.Science 23 March 2007:
Vol.28/12/2012
315. no.
Diunduh dari: www.zo.utexas.edu/courses/stuart/301Msp10RestoreEcol2.ppt
………..
5819, pp. 1679 - 1684
Future storm damage could be
reduced by reestablishing coastal
wetlands.
Restoration of the Mississippi Delta: Lessons from
Hurricanes Katrina and Rita
Diunduh
……….. 28/12/2012
J Wdari:
Day,www.zo.utexas.edu/courses/stuart/301Msp10RestoreEcol2.ppt
Jr et al.Science 23 March 2007: Vol. 315. no. 5819,
Future storm damage could be
reduced by reestablishing coastal
wetlands,
cost $5-$17 billion
Restoration of the Mississippi Delta: Lessons from
Hurricanes Katrina and Rita
Diunduh
……….. 28/12/2012
J Wdari:
Day,www.zo.utexas.edu/courses/stuart/301Msp10RestoreEcol2.ppt
Jr et al.Science 23 March 2007: Vol. 315. no. 5819,
Next:
How many animals do you
want/need to save?
Diunduh dari: www.zo.utexas.edu/courses/stuart/301Msp10RestoreEcol2.ppt ……….. 28/12/2012
.
Diunduh dari: www.sfdr-cisd.org/personal/.../Succession%20and%20Restoration.ppt ………..
28/12/2012
Botkin & Keller Chapter 9:
Succession and Restoration
Diunduh dari: www.sfdr-cisd.org/personal/.../Succession%20and%20Restoration.ppt ………..
28/12/2012
Homework Assignment
• Create two flowcharts. One
illustrating the steps of primary
succession, one illustrating the
steps of secondary succession.
• You may use either pictures or
words.
Diunduh dari: www.sfdr-cisd.org/personal/.../Succession%20and%20Restoration.ppt ………..
28/12/2012
Restoration Ecology
• New field of restoration ecology
developed w/in the science of
ecology.
– Goal = return damaged ecosystems
to some set of conditions
considered functional, sustainable
and “natural”.
• Restore to what?
Balance of Nature
• Predominant belief that left
undisturbed an ecosystem would
achieve a single condition that would
persist indefinitely.
• Major tenets of this belief
– 1. Nature undisturbed achieves a
permanency of form and structure that
persists indefinitely
– 2. If it is disturbed and the disturbing
force removed, nature returns to exactly
the same permanent state.
– 3. In this permanent state of nature, there
is a “great chain of being” with a place for
each creature.
Balance of Nature
• Twentieth century ecologist
formalized the belief in the
balance of nature
– Climate state – steady-state stage
that would persist indefinitely
• Maximum biological diversity
• Maximum storage of chemical element
• Maximum biological diversity
Balance of Nature
• Since the second half of the 20th
century ecologist have learned
that nature is not constant.
– All ecosystems undergo change
– Species adapted to and need
change
• Dealing with change poses
questions of human value
– Controlling and managing fire
Goals of Restoration
• Frequently accepted that
restoration means restoring an
ecosystem to its historical range
of variation and to an ability to
sustain itself and its crucial
functions
– Cycling of chemical elements
– The flow of energy
– Maintenance of biological diversity
Goals of Restoration
• Science tells us what nature has
been and what it could be.
• Our values determine what we
want nature to be.
– There is no single perfect condition.
What Needs to be
Restored?
• Ecosystems of all types have
undergone degradation and need
restoration.
• Once again discussions about
restoration involves values.
Wetland, Rivers, and
Streams
• Estimated that CA has lost 90% of
its wetlands.
– The US about 50%
• Kissimmee River in Florida
– Channelized to provide ship passage
– Now under going restoration at cost
of several hundred million dollars
Prairie Restoration
• Prairie once occupied more land
in US than any other kind of
ecosystem.
– Only a few remnants remain
– Land converted to agriculture
• Two kinds of restoration
– Intact prairie (never been plowed)
– Previously plowed land more
complicated to restore
Prairie Restoration
• Area along road ways not plowed
– Narrow strips of native prairie
remain
– In Iowa 242,000 hectares of prairie
along roadways
– Reservoir for native plants
– Used as send sources for other
restoration projects
The Process of Ecological
Succession
• Recovery of disturbed
ecosystems can occur naturally,
through a process of ecological
succession.
• Primary succession
– The initial establishment and
development of an ecosystem
where one did not exist
previously
• Secondary succession
– Reestablishment of an ecosystem
following disturbance
Examples of primary succession
after a lava flow and at the
edge of a receding glacier.
Primary Succession
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vNHnwHaSolA
Secondary successionfrom abandoned field
to mature forest
Secondary Succession
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CQ2Xl6ZqzRI
Patterns of Succession
• When succession occurs it follows
certain general patterns.
– Three examples include dunes, bog
and abandoned farm field
Dune
Succession
• Sand dunes
continually
formed along
sandy shores.
– Then breached
and destroyed
by storms
• After dune forms
– First to be
established are
grasses
– Grass runners
stabilize dunes
– Other species
seeds may
germinate and
become
established
Dune
Succession
• Plants of early
succession tend
to be
– Small, grow well
in bright light,
and withstand
harshness of
environment
• Over time larger
plants can
become
established
– Eastern red
cedar, eastern
white pine
– Beech and
maple later
Bog Succession
• A bog is an open body of water
with surface inlets but no
surface outlets.
• Succession begins with
– Sedge puts out floating runners
– Wind blows particles into the mat
of runners
– Seeds that land on top don’t sink
in the water and can germinate
– Mat becomes thicker and shrubs
and trees can grow
Bog
Succession
• The bog also fills
in from the
bottom
– The shoreward
end floating mat
and sediment will
meet, forming a
solid surface.
– Farther from
shore all the
vegetation is still
floating
Old-Field Succession
• A great deal of land cleared for
farming in the 18th and 19th
centuries
– That land now allowed to go back to
forest
• Succession
– The first plants to enter the farm
land are small plants adapted to
harsh and variable conditions.
– After they are established larger
plants move in.
Old-Field Succession
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a5xjVzPN3Og
General Patterns of
Succession
General Patterns of
Succession
• Common element include the
following
– 1. An initial kind of vegetation
specially adapted to the unstable
conditions.
• Typically small
• Help stabilize physical environment
– 2. A second stage with plants still of
small statute, rapidly growing, with
seeds that spread rapidly.
General Patterns of
Succession
– 3. A third stage in which larger
plants, including trees, enter and
begin to dominate the site.
– 4. A forth stage in which mature
forest develops.
General Patterns of
Succession
• Successional stages
– Early (1 and 2), middle, and late
• Similar patterns seen with
animals and other life-forms at
each stage.
– Species characteristic of early stage
are called pioneers
– Late-successional species tend to be
slower- growing and longer-lived
General Patterns of
Succession
• In early stages of succession
– Biomass and biological diversity
increase
• In middle stages
– Gross production increase and net
production decrease
– Organic material in soil increases, as
does chemical element storage
Succession and Chemical
Cycling
• Storage of chemical elements
generally increases during
progression from early to middle
for two reasons.
– 1.Organic matter stores chemical
elements
• As one increases the other will
increase
• Nitrogen fixation
– 2. Presence of live and dead matter
helps stop erosion.
Succession and Chemical
Cycling
• As general rule, the greater the
volume of soil and the greater the
% of organic matter in the soil ,
the more chemical elements will
be retained.
– Varies with average size of soil
particles
Succession and Chemical
Cycling
• The chemical storage capacity of soils
varies w/ average size of the soil
particle.
– Large coarse particles, like sand, have a
smaller total surface area and can store a
smaller quantity of chemical elements.
– Smaller particles, like clay, store greater
quantity of chemical elements.
• Soils store large quantities of c.e. but
not as readily available as those in
living organisms.
Succession and Chemical
Cycling
• The increase in chemical element
does not continue indefinitely.
• With no disturbance ecosystem
will have a slow loss of stored
chemical elements
– Becoming depauperate
Species Change in
Succession
• Earlier and later species in
succession may interact in three
ways
– Facilitation
– Interference
– Life history differences
• If they don’t interact the result is
chronic patchiness
Facilitation
• In the dune and bog the
facilitators are the dune grass and
floating sedge, respectively.
– They prepare the way for other
species
• Knowing the role of facilitation
helps w/ restoration
– These plants can be planted first
Interference
• Certain early species interfere w/
the entrance of other species.
– Grasses may form dense mats
blocking other seeds from
germinating.
– Breaks in the mat allow other to be
established
Life History Differences
• An example of life history
differences is seed dispersal.
– Early-successsional species are
readily transported by wind or
animals.
• Reach clearing sooner
– Late-successional species seeds take
longer to travel and seedlings can
tolerate shade.
Applying Ecological
Knowledge
• Undo mining damage in Great
Britain
– To remove toxic pollutants
– Restore biological production
– Restore attractiveness of landscape
• Agricultural approach failed
– Grasses soon died and land was
barren again
• Ecological approach has been
successful
– Planting early successional species
.
Diunduh dari: ……….. 28/12/2012
A DECLARATION OF CIVIC PRINCIPLES
FOR RESPONSIBLE FOREST
RESTORATION
June 1999
Principle I: Clearly defined ecological goals and objectives must
be the first priority of restoration efforts.
Part of the confusion and conflict surrounding many approaches
to forestry revolves around the ambiguity of objectives and
priorities. "Sustainable Forestry" for example can variously refer
to either restoration oriented forest management that
emphasizes ecological objectives, or sustained production
forestry which attempts to accommodate ecological concerns
while maintaining economic benefits. We believe restoration
must clearly place ecological goals and objectives as the first
priority of restoration efforts. We recognize that economic
opportunities may be created as by-products of these
restoration activities, and that often such opportunities will be
an important factor in determining the feasibility of particular
strategies for restoration. However, ecological objectives must
clearly drive and determine restoration strategies.
Diunduh dari: http://www.gffp.org/pine/principle.htm……….. 28/12/2012
A DECLARATION OF CIVIC PRINCIPLES
FOR RESPONSIBLE FOREST
RESTORATION
June 1999
Principle II: Start small, increase scale in measured incremental
steps.
Restoration as a scientific discipline is relatively young.
Restoration as a set of concepts and practices has a longer
history but is often more of an aggregation of local knowledge,
institutional culture and custom, and practitioner perceptions.
Given these conditions, it would be unwise to assume we can
accurately predict all consequences of restoration actions.
Consequently, restoration initiatives should start at scales
compatible with the knowledge and experience available in each
area. Restoration efforts must have a solid scientific foundation
and include extensive and ongoing monitoring and evaluation
which informs any subsequent activity. Implementation should
proceed in incremental steps e.g. small test plots preceding
larger treatment blocks; treatment blocks preceding landscape
scale implementation.
Diunduh dari: http://www.gffp.org/pine/principle.htm……….. 28/12/2012
A DECLARATION OF CIVIC PRINCIPLES
FOR RESPONSIBLE FOREST
RESTORATION
June 1999
Principle III: Locate projects in areas with substantial
agreement on restoration goals.
Despite the substantial risks for large scale disturbances in many
areas of our public lands, certain restoration treatments in these
areas may also create impacts which could jeopardize the very
values we hope to protect. Consequently, restoration
experiments should begin in areas where there exists substantial
agreement on the need for treatments. Examples might include
urban-wildland interfaces with high wildfire risks; critical
spawning habitat being damaged by sedimentation; or areas in
which critical habitats are being lost due to exotic species
invasions or increasing tree densities. Attempting to initiate
relatively untested restoration strategies in controversial areas
such as National Parks, Wilderness Areas, or roadless areas will
only perpetuate conflict and substantially delay support for
responsible restoration initiatives. Conversely, there are areas in
which risks to human life and values have already targeted an
area for treatment. Such areas make logical test sites since
treatment would likely occur irrespective of restoration
priorities.
Much of the current resistance towards implementing
restoration programs is based on the fear that such treatments
will soon
be widely applied across broad areas without
Diunduh dari: http://www.gffp.org/pine/principle.htm……….. 28/12/2012
adequate knowledge and experience of the potential negative
A DECLARATION OF CIVIC PRINCIPLES
FOR RESPONSIBLE FOREST
RESTORATION
June 1999
Principle IV: Effective restoration will require substantial
reinvestment. Restoration should not be expected to pay for
itself.
Decades of extractive activities and other management practices
such as fire exclusion have substantially depleted the ecological
"capital" of many ecosystems. As a result, the ecological surplus,
the "interest" produced by this ecological capital, has been
substantially depleted. As a result, in many places we have been
living off the principal of our lands, not simply its surplus or
interest. Before the land is capable of providing a long-term flow
of "interest" in the form of goods and services (whether it be
forest products or recreation opportunities) we must rebuilt the
ecological capital through substantial reinvestment in the land.
These investments will create economic opportunities and
goods and service byproducts. However, it is essential that these
economic and social benefits are the by-products of restoration,
not the primary objectives.
Diunduh dari: http://www.gffp.org/pine/principle.htm……….. 28/12/2012
A DECLARATION OF CIVIC PRINCIPLES
FOR RESPONSIBLE FOREST
RESTORATION
June 1999
Principle V: Utilize an inclusive, open and comprehensive
process for identifying and designing restoration projects.
There are three important elements in developing an effective
restoration strategy. First, all interested stakeholders should be
given the chance for substantive involvement. Repeated
experience throughout the country has demonstrated that land
management and restoration is not simply a scientific or
technical process, it is also fundamentally a social one. This
implies that we need to be aware of the range of groups,
including communities of place and interest, who feel they have
a stake in the outcome of a restoration program, and clearly
understand their issues. In some cases, we may also need to
make special provisions to enable the involvement of such
groups or individuals. At the same time, effective involvement
requires a commitment by all parties to engage in constructive
dialogue and participation. All parties should be held to the
same standards of honesty, consistency, and respect.
Second, new approaches to disseminating information will be
needed which recognize the different levels of understanding
and experience present in each major stakeholder group. Our
larger success in reorienting human values and behavior
towards a culture and practice of restoration will require the
support,
participation and long-term commitment of a broadDiunduh dari: http://www.gffp.org/pine/principle.htm……….. 28/12/2012
base of the public. For example, restoration will inherently
A DECLARATION OF CIVIC PRINCIPLES
FOR RESPONSIBLE FOREST
RESTORATION
June 1999
Principle VI: Build a thorough and well-balanced research
program to evaluate effectiveness.
We need to acknowledge at the outset of our restoration efforts
that there are substantial areas of uncertainty which surround
restoration theory and practice. This uncertainty not only affects
the effectiveness of practices, it has a dramatic impact on public
understanding and acceptance in a restoration program. At the
same time, it is essential that restoration practices have a
rigorous scientific foundation which distinguishes between
values, perceptions and replicable phenomena. Thus, an
essential first step in a responsible restoration process,
particularly those with potential impacts on larger landscapes, is
the development of a comprehensive research agenda
associated with the project. This research agenda should
carefully document the questions which give rise to uncertainty.
This includes not only the academic community, but also local
communities, interest groups and other stakeholders. This set of
questions then forms the basis of a research program which can
begin to inform both the theory and ongoing practices of
restoration. It also provides the framework for an ongoing
dialogue and education of the broad set of constituencies who
are concerned about the effectiveness of restoration practices.
Research
should include the range of knowledge available from
Diunduh dari: http://www.gffp.org/pine/principle.htm……….. 28/12/2012
scientific, practitioner, and indigenous sources.
A DECLARATION OF CIVIC PRINCIPLES
FOR RESPONSIBLE FOREST
RESTORATION
June 1999
Principle VII: Create an all-party monitoring process to assure
credible implementation.
One of the core components of an effective research program is
the formulation of a comprehensive monitoring program. We
must have ways to evaluate the impacts and responses to
restoration treatments. This feedback must then be
incorporated as modifications in subsequent restoration
activities enabling an adaptive, responsive management
approach.
Monitoring is also an essential tool in building trust and support
for responsible restoration practices. To do so, however, the
monitoring program must include a broad set of stakeholders in
refining the questions to be answered; developing acceptable
protocol for monitoring; collecting monitoring data; and
collectively interpreting results. Recognizing that monitoring is
frequently not adequately funded, provisions must be built into
restoration programs at the outset to insure adequate resources
for comprehensive, inclusive monitoring.
The final step in the monitoring process is the development of
an effective educational program that can bring the results of
both research and monitoring to the broader public in forms
that are both comprehensible and useful. In this way we may
finally begin
to provide society with timely feedback on the
Diunduh dari: http://www.gffp.org/pine/principle.htm……….. 28/12/2012
consequences, not only of restoration activities, but also the
A DECLARATION OF CIVIC PRINCIPLES
FOR RESPONSIBLE FOREST
RESTORATION
June 1999
Principle VIII: Strive to distribute the costs and benefits of
restoration equitably.
We must recognize from the outset that restoration is not value
neutral. Designing and implementing restoration programs will
involve assigning priorities that affect how costs and benefits are
distributed, both among humans and in the larger living
systems. Designing restoration treatments for one species may
lead to declines in another. Providing protection for one area or
value may increase the risks to another.
A core principle of responsible restoration is the sincere effort to
distribute these costs and benefits as equitably and justly as
possible. In order to do so, we must explicitly discuss the range
of trade-offs that are created as we favor certain values or
features over others. This also implies that we attempt to insure
that all parties affected by these choices, both human and nonhuman, are adequately represented in this process. In doing so,
restoration provides the opportunity to demonstrate the
interconnectedness of human and non-human communities. In
this regard, local communities have a special role and
responsibility, both in limiting negative impacts of human
presence, and as a substantial part of the workforce involved in
restoration activities.
Diunduh dari: http://www.gffp.org/pine/principle.htm……….. 28/12/2012
.
. Ecological Restoration Principles for Fuel Reduction
W.W. Covington, Northern Arizona University Ecological
Restoration Institute
Ten years ago, Carl Walters and Crawford S. Holling (ref to 1990
Ecology paper) memorably recommended "large-scale
management experiments and learning by doing". We have
been pursuing this approach in what has been called "the
Flagstaff Plan". In collaboration with partners in the
environmental community, conservation practitioners and
interested parties from government and a range of
organizations, my colleagues and I at the Ecological Restoration
Institute at Northern Arizona University have developed a
community-based general framework for the development of
ecologically based restoration treatments.
Scientific framework. Ecological restoration is the restoration of
natural ecosystem structures and processes. Ecological
restoration treatments are based on reference conditions (the
evolutionary environment context), a framework that considers
evolutionary biology, conservation biology and ecosystem
ecology principles.
Social and political framework. In an ecosystem ecology
approach, social and political concerns play a major part in
defining treatments. Therefore, it is imperative to engage
stakeholders, especially community-based partnerships linked to
regional and national agencies and interest groups, with policymakers, natural resource specialists, and resource managers.
Operational
framework. Financial and personnel constraints
Diunduh dari: http://www.gffp.org/pine/restore.htm……….. 28/12/2012
place geographical limits on treatments. Therefore, emphasis is
SEMINAR HASIL PENELITIAN
TESIS & DISERTASI PPSUB-2013
PERIODE PELAKSANAAN SEMINAR:
1. Periode I : Maret 2013
2. Periode II: September 2013
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