Transcript Romans were great builders and engineers Pantheon, Rome

Rome
Chapter 4
Mechikoff /Estes, A History and Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education, Fourth
Edition © 2006, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
The Etruscans
Etruscan rule: approximately 600 B.C. to
509 B.C.
Etruscans
Lived in North Central Italy
Scholars don’t agree on where they originated
Archeology uncovered burial tombs
The Etruscans
1958: discovery of tomb containing elaborate
paintings depicting various sporting scenes
Known as the Tomb of the Olympic Games
Other tombs were discovered later
Depict footraces, jumping contests, discus, chariot
racing, vaulting over wooden hurdles, swimming,
gymnastics, armed combat
The Etruscans
Statues depict men and women wrestlers
competing against each other.
Suggests that Etruscan men and women were
both active and competed against each other
Employed sports and athletic festivals for
entertainment
Etruscan Sport
Tendency for violence:
Used prisoners as sacrifices to honor the dead
Later used prisoners as “performers” who
entertained by fighting to the death
Etruscan cities often centered around arenas
which served as sporting venues
Romans adopted various Etruscan customs and
practices after conquering them in 509 B.C.
Ancient Rome
Roman Republic (established following
victory over Etruscans in 509 B.C.)
Roman Empire (established in 27 B.C.)
Empire divided in fourth century A.D.
Western Empire, centered in Rome, lasted until
A.D. 476
Eastern Empire, centered in Constantinople
(now Istanbul), lasted until A.D. 1453
Roman Emperor Nero
Heavily influenced by Greek culture
Believed Greeks alone worthy of his genius
Demanded a special Olympic Games be
held in his honor
Competed in chariot race but fell
Declared winner anyway
Victory revoked by Greeks after his death
Romans and Greeks: Cultural
Analysis
Romans valued intellect and culture much
less than Greeks
Focused on practical versus aesthetic
Romans did not contribute much to
philosophic and scientific advancement
compared to Greeks
Most Romans did not share the Greek belief
in the “holistic” development of man (arete)
Romans and Greeks
Romans were focused on the practical and
purposeful—very utilitarian
Great civil engineers, many Roman roads still in use
Very effective administrators
Developed Roman law
Incorporated aspects of conquered nations’
cultures if they bettered Roman practices
Greeks very reluctant to do this
Roman Architecture
Romans were
great builders
and engineers
Pantheon, Rome
Romans and Greeks
Romans were polytheistic (like the Greeks)
Roman gods were essentially Greek gods
with Roman names
During the Empire, some Romans rejected
the mythology and started to embrace
Christianity
Roman Beliefs
Military training took precedence over
intellectual achievement
Religion: relatively spirit-less
lacked ceremony, mystery, and awe
Philosophers provided code of conduct
Character formation: critical to development of
citizens and survival of the Republic
Romans were much more inclusive of other
cultures than Greeks
Philosophic Orientation: the Cynics
A group devoted to the teaching of Socrates
Believed in the importance of character, and the
indifference to circumstance
influenced the Stoics and, later, some ascetic Christians
Believed Socratic maxim, “no harm can come to a
good man”
Suffering, pain, poverty should be ignored
Political relationships are pointless and should be
ignored
Philosophic Orientation: the Stoics
Zeno established his own school of philosophy—
stoicism
Broke with the Cynics since Zeno was concerned with
political life
Influenced by Plato and Aristotle regarding politics
Unlike Plato and Socrates, the Stoics trusted the body
Sense perceptions used to acquire knowledge
Body was significant
The Stoics
Rejected metaphysics and religious claims
on morality
Emphasized attainment of personal
happiness through positive personal conduct
no matter what life dealt
Stoics and Roman Society
Stoicism appealed to Roman society:
Individualism—master of your own fate
Personal conduct, character development
Acceptance of fate
Reflected lack of emotion and strict discipline
Recent “Gladiator” movie displays this ethos
Essential for Roman rule and organization
Epicureans
Rejected metaphysical or religious claims on one’s
behavior (similar to Stoicism)
Argued against idealism
Body was important for knowing, discovering reality
Promoted the development of cultured individuals
who found happiness through the joys of the mind
Sought happiness in good conduct, friendship, and
aesthetic enjoyments
Epicurean Thinkers
Marcus Tullius Cicero: great orator and
philosopher
Challenged unethical politics of Julius Caesar
Banished from Rome due to criticisms
Became social critic of arena sports as representative of
larger Roman social problems
Influenced by Greek philosopher Antiochus
Concerned with ethics and optimum development of
mind and body
Roman Sport: Change Over Time
Early Republic: people kept physically fit and
engaged in athletic contests but were not interested
in Greek-style formal athletic competition
Upper class developed ball games, massage,
thermae (bathing pools)
Some wealthy Romans accepted the Greek concept
of health gymnastics
Honored their gods through physical activities
Foot races, ball playing, equestrian displays, and
wrestling
Roman Sport: Change Over Time
Late Republic/Empire era:
Less interested in personal physical fitness
Greek athleticism not valued militarily by
utilitarian Romans
Rome became a nation of spectators
Mass entertainment, spectacle, and carnage
Games and sport did not facilitate physical
education as they did in Greece
Roman Sport and the Military
Military extremely important
Affected views of physical
training
Youth were trained to make
obedient, disciplined soldiers
Prestigious profession
Legions were feared
throughout ancient world
Stoic philosophy supported
military system
Roman Science: Claudius Galen
Sometimes called father of
sports medicine
studied medicine at seventeen
Practiced on gladiators
First to apply medicine and
biomechanics to exercise.
Opposed to professional athlete
Agreed with Greeks about
“moderation in all things”
Women and Sport
Women’s role not nearly as documented as
men’s role
for entertainment value; not taken seriously
Social and political system was based on
patriarchy and class stratification
Athletic competition was the domain of
Roman men
Women participated in swimming, dancing,
ball games, and thermae
Women and Sport
“Romanized” Olympic
Games had wrestling and
running contests for
women
Archaeological evidence
that women competed as
gladiators
Roman officials outlawed
participation at certain times
Games and Spectacles
Religious holidays became elaborate festivals
53 public holidays in 173 B.C.; nearly 200 by 300 A.D.
Politicians often funded spectacles to get voter support
Spectacles took place frequently to pacify the people
Government believed bored citizens would revolt
Included gladiatorial fights, horse and chariot races, and
various other forms of combat
Games and Spectacles: Arenas
Flavian Amphitheater (Colosseum)
Engineering marvel; scented water cooled spectators
Food and presents thrown to poor
Space for 50,000 spectators
Typical agenda:
Animal fights
Men and women thrown to the animals
Gladiator fights last and most popular
Mass combats also held
Emperor Claudius (A.D. 52) flooded Colosseum and
ordered 19,000 slaves onto ships
Flavian Amphitheater
Flavian Amphitheater
Games and Spectacles
Circus Maximus:
premier hippodrome in
Rome
Chariot races, gladiator
combats in front of 250
thousand spectators
More Christians were
killed in the Circus
Maximus than in the
Flavian Amphitheater
Chariot Races
Games and Spectacles: Gladiators
Mostly criminals and
slaves trained to fight
Utilitarian approach of
pacifying the people
System dealt with
“criminals,” political
enemies
Some free men
volunteered: auctorati
Gladiators
Four major classes:
Thracian, Samnite, Retiarius, Murmillo
Dressed as Roman enemies who fought to the
death
Most popular events in the amphitheater
Gladiators
Took an oath to be
“burnt with fire,
shackled with chains,
whipped with rods,
and killed with steel”
(p. 87)
Pompeii: bestpreserved gladiator
training schools
Sport and Christianity
Christianity’s growth profoundly impacted sport
Roman “sport” was condemned by Christians
writers
Christians were often victims of the spectacles
Christians urged to avoid sport and games—but they
did attend and gamble on events
Extent of Christian participation in sport and
games is debated
Sport and Christianity
Christian Empire adopted popular chariot
racing from the Romans
Greek athletic festivals and Roman
spectacles ended with destruction of Rome
in 410 A.D.
Greek Reaction to Roman Sport
Many Greeks opposed the introduction of
Roman sport
Gladiatorial contests were staged in Greece
by first century A.D.
Some emperors liked the Olympic Games
and spent money to restore Greek athletic
venues like Olympia