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Romulus and Remus 753 BC Foundation of Rome 509 BC Foundation of Roman Republic: “res publica” = state, commonwealth consuls Classes (Orders) of Citizens: Patricians (patricii): old nobility, major land-holding class, source of most senators Plebeians (plebs): common people, both urban and rural citizens Knights (equites): wealthy non-patricians engaged in business ventures, source of some politicians Consuls Two, elected yearly Executive leaders, command armies, propose laws, act as judges Each may block the other At least one has to be a plebeian Ex consuls (proconsuls) often provincial governors Senate Advising consuls, controlling finances, administering justice, foreign policy Senators from patrician nobility and from former holders of public office Need minimum amount of wealth, because not salaried Membership reviewed every year Senators serving as magistrates Plebeian Assembly Involved in justice, lawmaking, debating wars Votes by tribe Led by tribunes of the people elected by assembly Tribunes can veto senate legislation, and each other Knights Non-senatorial, wealthy Romans, mostly merchants and businessmen Controlling law courts through jury service Gaius Julius Caesar (102-44 BC) Octavian (Augustus, r. 31 BC-14 AD) 31 BC Octavian takes control of Roman state 27 BC Octavian “restores” the Roman Republic, but retains wide-ranging powers. Receives title “Augustus” (revered one) 23 BC Augustus receives tribune’s powers for life Imperator (giver of orders, emperor) Trajan (r. 98-117 AD) Marcus Aurelius (r. 161-80 AD): barbarian attacks, taxation, conscription, plague Map Link: Roman Empire, 117 AD: <http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb /e/e7/RomanEmpire_117.svg/800px-RomanEmpire _117.svg.png> Roman economy and relations to the land Animal husbandry, manufacturing, trade and especially growing crops Settling veterans in provinces, then from 13 BC discharging with 3000 denarii Settled veterans as force for Romanisation Roman Values: gravitas (solemnity) humanitas (humaneness) pietas (“piety”) Also justice, adherence to law, peace numen/numina pax deorum (peace with the gods) Janus, spirit of the house door god of the sacred gateway at the Forum Vesta, spirit of the fireplace goddess of the sacred hearth with holy fire kept burning by Vestal Virgins Gaius Julius Caesar (102-44 BC) Vespasian (r. 69-79 AD) 1st-3rd c. AD Worship of mystery cult of Mithras spreads among Roman soldiers Zoroastrianism Ahura-Mazda Ahriman Augustus of Prima Porta Livia 53 BC Loss of standards in Middle East 20 BC Standards given back Tiberius Diana Apollo Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (69-c. 140 AD) Son of a Knight. Originally lawyer, became chief secretary to Hadrian (r. 117-38) 122 Dismissed from court De Vita Caesarum (The Twelve Caesars; biographies of Julius Caesar and first twelve emperors) Had access to state archives, but also uncritical in use of sources Eutropius (fl. latter half 4th c.) Roman historian. Held office of secretary at imperial court in Constantinople Wrote history of Rome, Breviarium Historiae Romanae (Compendium of Roman History), covering foundation to reign of Valens (r. 364-78), to whom is dedicated