Renal Tubule
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Transcript Renal Tubule
SUR 122
Genitourinary
Surgery
Genitourinary System
Terminology
Anatomy & Physiology
Pathology
Diagnostic & Pre-operative Testing
Anesthesia & Medications
Basic Instrumentation, Supplies, & Equipment
Incision Site Options
Positioning, Prep, & Draping
Dressings, Drains, & Post-operative Care
Terminology
BPH – nonmalignant enlargement of prostate common with age
Dialysis - waste product removal from the blood of a patient in
renal failure
Enucleate – remove without cutting into
Epispadias – urethra terminates at base of penis or above
clitoris (congenital)
Gerota’s capsule – perirenal fascia that holds kidney in place
Impotence – inability to achieve erection
Hematuria – blood in the urine
Hilum- everything enters and leaves kidneys through this notch
Ptosis – drooping of an organ or part
Trigone – triangle-like space a bladder base
Terminology
Hydrocele – fluid filled sac in the scrotum
Hypospadias – urethra opens on ventral surface of
penis, perineum, or inside the vagina (congenital)
Paraphimosis – retraction of prepuce results in
painful swelling of glans
Phimosis – uncircumcised male prepuce won’t retract
from glans
Wilm’s tumor - malignant neoplasm of a kidney in
children 3-4yrs.
Anatomy video
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xYTjvqzyd
9k
Male Reproductive System
Large part external to body cavity
Scrotum=pouch of skin that contains testis
Testis are both endocrine & exocrine glands
Exocrine=secrete sperm via ducts
Endocrine glands produce testosterone
Male Reproductive System
Testis
Lobules with 3 cell types:
1. Seminiferous tubules
involved in spermatogenesis
2. Interstitial cells (cells of Leydig)
produce testosterone
3. Seratoli cells
provide nutrients for sperm
Male Reproductive System
Sperm
Male produces 300 million sperm per
day=120million per ml
Less than 20 million per ml considered sterile
Male Reproductive System
Sperm (3 parts)
1. Head
a. Acrosome contains
chemical hyaluronidase
which is an enzyme that
breaks down hyaluronic acid
(found in loose connective
tissue) that allows sperm to
penetrate the egg
b. Nucleus (haploid) contains
23 chromosomes (when
unites with egg also 23
chromosomes, chromosome
total becomes 46)
2. Midpiece
extension that contains large
amt of mitochondria (ATP)
3. Flagella
tail composed of a protein
that allows for movement
generated by ATP
1
N
Male Hormones
1. FSH
Tells interstitial cells to produce testosterone and
sperm in testis
2. LH
Tells interstitial cells to develop and secrete
testosterone
3. Testosterone
Stimulates development, growth and maintenance of
male reproductive system including sex
characteristics, maturation of sperm, and skeletal
muscle development
Ducts
1. Epididymis
Series of ducts or channels that communicate with the testis
Store sperm
Area for sperm maturation
Ciliated columnar cells secrete
2. Vas Deferens
Loops up over bladder
Transports sperm
Ciliated columnar cells and smooth muscle (peristalsis) move
sperm
3. Ejaculatory duct
Vas deferens merge into this posterior to bladder which merges
with the urethra (runs through the prostate)
Male Reproductive System
Summation
Testis are located in the scrotum
Testes produce sperm and testosterone
Contain lobules containing seminiferous tubules
where sperm arise
Lobules lead to ducts in the epididymis
Epididymis leads to ductus deferens
Ductus deferens open into urethra
Testis suspended by spermatic cord
Spermatic cord goes from inguinal ring to testis
Inguinal ring also contains ductus deferens, testicular
vessels (arterial, venous, and lymphatic), and nerves
Accessory Organs
1.
2.
3.
Seminal vesicles
Behind (posterior) bladder
Secrete into ejaculatory duct
60% liquid portion of semen
Prostate gland
Donut shaped as urethra runs
through it
Secretes 30% liquid portion of
semen directly into the urethra
Bulbourethral (Cowper’s)
glands
10% volume of semen
(lubricates head)
Neutralizes acidity of urethra
Secrete directly into urethra
Internal urinary sphincter
tightens w/ejaculation to
prevent mixing of urine
w/sperm
Accessory Organs
Penis
3 cylindrical tissue masses
Corpus cavernosum x 2 (upper)
Corpus spongiosum x1 (lower)
Urethra passes through corpus spongiosum
These three areas are surrounded by blood
sinuses
Arteriole blood retention allows an erection
Post-ejaculation pressure is released
Genitourinary System
Kidneys
Adrenal glands
Ureters
Urinary Bladder
Urethra
Prostate Gland (male)
Kidneys
Location retroperitoneal
At T-12 to L-3 vertebral column
Encapsulated in perineal fat and fascia renalis
capsule which hold them in position
Hilum medial area where renal artery and vein enter
and exit
Left larger
Right lower due to liver location
Functional unit is the nephron: filtration,
reabsorption, secretion
Nephron
> 1 million per kidney
2 types: juxtamedullary and cortical
Each composed of capillary network:
Renal corpuscle
Renal tubule
Nephron
Renal Corpuscle:
Bowman’s Capsule
Glomerulus
Renal Tubule:
Proximal Convuluted Tubule
Loop of Henle
Distal Convuluted Tubule
Collecting Tubule
Renal Corpuscle
1. Filtration
Bowman’s Capsule (glomerulus encased by)
Glomerulus (capillary network)
Water and substances filtered from blood
Renal Tubules
2. Reabsorption
Substances move from renal tubules into
capillaries (blood) surrounding the tubules
Prevents needed body substances from
being lost in urine
Proximal convuluted tubule (origin in
Bowman’s Capsule)
Loop of Henle
Distal Convuluted Tubule
Renal Tubules
3.
Secretion
Substances move from blood into tubules
(urine)
Distal Collecting Tubule
Collecting Tubule
Filtrate/Urine Pathway
Fluid once it leaves the blood and is in the
nephron called filtrate, once leaves nephron
is called urine
Nephron > papillary duct > minor and major
calyces > renal pelvis > ureters
Urinary Bladder
Holds average of 800ml
Three layers: Submucosa, Muscularis, Inner Tunica Mucosa
Muscularis called detrusor muscle
Internal sphincter = smooth muscle = involuntary control
External sphincter = skeletal muscle = voluntary control
Stretch receptors in bladder signal brain via micturation reflex
About 400ml, brain relaxes internal sphincter
This signals you it’s time to go…
Inner Tunica mucosa is rugae surface (allows for stretching)
except in the trigone area which is a smooth surface
Adrenal Glands
Suprarenal glands
Endocrine glands: contain cortex and
medulla
Cortex: secretion of fluid and electrolyte
balance controlling steroids and hormones
(aldosterone and cortisol)
Medulla: produces, stores, & secretes
epinephrine (adrenaline) & norepinephrine
(noradrenalin)
Pathology of the Male Reproductive
System
Phimosis
Hypospadias/Epispadias
BPH
Cancer of the Prostate
Cryptorchidism
Testicular Torsion
Testicular Cancer
Trauma
Phimosis
Foreskin will not retract
Congenital
Geriatric
Can cause infection, pain
Tx: circumcision
Hypospadias
Epispadias
Hypospadias
Epispadias
Urethral opening under
Urethral opening on top
the penis or on the
perineum
Urethral opening inside
the vagina
Congenital
Tx: Surgical repair
of the penis
Urethral opening above
the clitoris
Congenital
Tx: Surgical repair
Cryptorchidism
Failure of testes to descend into scrotum after
1 yr of age
Found in abdomen or groin
Often seen with inguinal hernia
Premature birth
Tx: HCG hormone therapy
Orchiopexy
Orchiectomy
Testicular Torsion
Spermatic cord is twisted
Tx: Orchiopexy
Testicular Cancer
20-40yrs
Infants with cryptorchidism higher risk
Embarrassment leads to non-treatment which
allows progression of disease
Tx: Orchiectomy
Sperm may be stored
Testicular implants available for cosmetic
purposes
BPH
Hypertrophy
Normal part of aging
> 50 yrs
Urethral narrowing can result
Tx: Drug therapy ↓ prostate growth (medical)
TURP (surgical)
Prostate Cancer
> 50 yrs
PSA (prostate specific
Asymptomatic in early
stages of disease
Symptom of blood in
the urine, likely too late
antigen)
Normal value <4ng/mL
PSA laboratory test of
choice by men over 50
for early detection
Will be done if BPH
detected on digital
exam to r/o cancer
↑PSA f/u with biopsy
Pathology of the Urinary System
Bladder Tumors
Urinary Calculi
Polycystic Kidney Disease
Diabetic Nephropathy
ESRD
Renal Cell Carcinoma
Congenital Nephroblastoma (Wilm’s Tumor)
Urinary Calculi/Stones
Solid particles that form in one or both kidneys
May become lodged
Pass < 4mm stones 80% of the time
50% recurrence rate
3 types:
Calcium (75%) dietary imbalance/hyperparathyroidism
Magnesium ammonium phosphate (struvite) (15%) UTI
Uric Acid (6%) associated with gout
Cystine amino acid reabsorption failure
ESWL
Extra-Corporeal Shock-Wave Lithotripsy
Renal Calculi
Historical: Done in large tub and patients were intubated and
connected to the shock therapy unit
Present: Water-bed like unit under lower body. Stone lined up
with C-arm machine/cross-sectioned + Stone hit with shock
waves precisely
Avoid bone
Shocks gauged to match patient HR, otherwise patient can
experience arrhythmias if shock wave exceed HR
Usually range from 120/min to 60 /min
Other Methods of Stone Removal
Cystoscopic / ureteroscopic /
nephroscopic lithotomy
Direct extraction via
Laser through
Small Lithotripsy unit used through
Percutaneous lithotomy
Open lithotomy
Polycystic Kidney Disease
Multiple fluid filled cysts in parenchyma of kidney
One kidney could have thousands
Kidney could weigh up to 22lbs.
3 Types:
1. Autosomal dominant (hereditary)
30-50yrs
90%
2. Autosomal recessive (rare/congenital)
Children
3. Acquired (long term kidney problems)
Diabetic Neuropathy (sclerosis)
Uncontrolled diabetic
Progressive disease>ESRD>dialysis
ESRD
Kidney failure
Final stage of many kidney diseases
Filtration system in kidney < 10%
50% are diabetics
s/sx: ↓UO, ↑BUN and creatinine levels
Death imminent without method of waste and
fluid removal
Tx: Hemodialysis and Peritoneal Dialysis
Hemodialysis
1.
2.
Vascular access
Temporary
Dual lumen catheter (Vas
Cath)
Permanent
PTFE loop graft
Creation of AV fistula
(cephalic and radial artery
most common)
Must mature, so will likely
have Vas Cath placed
2 lumens: one for outflow
and one for inflow
Dialysis machine has 2
compartments: one for
incoming blood and one for
dialysate
Between compartments is a
semi-permeable membrane
that filters like the kidney
Excess wastes and fluids go
into dialysate and are
disposed of
Important blood components
and proteins return to body
Peritoneal Dialysis
Requires implantation of catheter into
peritoneal cavity (ex. Tenchkoff)
Allows for infusion of dialysate which draws
out waste and fluids
After proper amount of time, dialysate and
fluid/wastes are drained into a bag
Peritoneum serves as filter
Pathology Affecting the
Adrenal Glands
Cushing’s Syndrome
Addison’s Disease
Pheochromocytoma
Pathology of the Adrenal Glands
Cushing’s Syndrome
Overproduction of cortisol
Cortisol production:
Pituitary gland which stimulates ACTH (adrenal cortical trophic
hormone) which stimulates cortisol production
Caused by: (80%) pituitary tumor or (20%) adrenal cortex tumor
s/sx: HTN, central body obesity, hirsutism, osteoporosis, kidney
stones, emotional instability, abnormal menses
Tx: surgical removal of tumor
Pathology of the Adrenal Glands
Addison’s Disease (Adrenal Insufficiency)
Hormones needed to maintain fluid and
electrolyte balance, blood pressure, and a
normal stress response are inhibited
s/sx: weight loss, weakness, fatigue, GI
disturbances, low BP, darkening of skin, hair
loss, mood/behavior changes
Tx: medical hormone replacement therapy
Pathology of the Adrenal Glands
Pheochromocytoma
Overproduction of adrenaline
Caused by tumor of the medulla
Excessive adrenaline creates severe hypertension
s/sx: HTN, severe headache, excessive sweating,
tachycardia, palpitations, anxiety, tremors, epigastric
pain, weight loss, heat intolerance
Tx: surgical removal of tumor
Genitourinary System
Reproductive Organs:
Female
Pathology of Female Genitourinary
and Reproductive System
Benign
Cysts
Polyps (pedunculated lesion)
Fistulas
Dysplasia
Leiomyoma/Myoma/Fibroid
Fibroma
Malignant
Vulvar
Vaginal
Cervical
Uterine
Ovarian
Other
Endometriosis
Cystocele
Rectocele (posterior colporrhaphy)
Enterocele
Ectopic Pregnancy
Incompetent Cervix (cerclage)
Pre-operative & Diagnostic Testing
H&P
UA
Hematology: CBC & HGB/HCT
Blood Chemistry: Blood Urea Nitrogen and Creatinine
KUB
IVP
Cystogram
Urethrogram
Cystoscopy
CT
MRI
Biopsy
Incisional Approaches
Inguinal
Scrotal
Abdominal
Thoracoabdominal pg. 603 Alexander’s
Gibson pg. 755 Caruthers
Flank pg. pg. 603 Alexander’s (more oblique)
Lumbar pg. 603 Alexander’s (more vertical)
*Provide best exposure
Anesthesia
General
Spinal
Epidural
MAC with Local
Medications
Antibiotics
Contrast Media (Hypaque)
Dyes (Methylene Blue, Indigo Carmine)
Diuretics
Instruments
Major Set
Vascular Tray or CV Tray
Extra Long Instrument Set
Self-Retaining Abdominal Retractor
Chest Tray: Finochetti, periosteotome, Doyan, rib
shears, rongeur, Bailey rib approximator
Special: Mixters, Potts scissors, Vascular
instruments, Bladder & Prostate retractors,
Pedicle clamps, Stone/lithotomy forceps
Other Cystoscope Components
Bridges (short and long)
Cystoscopes: 12°, 30°, and 70°
Supplies
Ureteral sounds (dilators)
Flexible endoscope and accessories
Rigid endoscope instrumentation
Resectoscope
Ellik evacuator
Toomey irrigator/syringe
Accessories: light cord, camera, insufflation
tubing, irrigation fluid
Irrigations
1.
2.
3.
Glycine
TURP
Water
Laser
NS
Cystograms
Supplies Continued
Lubricant
Foley catheter and drainage bag
Alternative catheters (difficult insertion)
Catheter guide (facilitates insertion)
Urethral catheters
Ureteral drainage bag(s)
Catheters
Urethral
Lumen Size range 8-30 French
Ureteral
Lumen Size range 3-14 French
FYI: Divide French by 3 to get diameter of
lumen in mm
Ex: 12 French catheter divided by 3 = 4mm in
diameter
Equipment
OR Table with Foot Drop (lithotomy) & Radiographic
Capability
Lead Aprons, Accessories
Quick Access to X-ray Development Room
IV Poles that will hold heavy fluid bags
Sitting stool
Multiple X-ray view boxes
Video Tower (light source, camera box, insufflator)
Cautery with bipolar capability
Positioning
Lithotomy
Supine
Lateral
Variations of Above
Prep
Area of Involvement
Begin at incision site and work way out
Prep genital area last
May not do a prep if urethral approach
Draping
Laparotomy
Universal
Perineal
Combination Laparotomy/Perineal
Surgeon’s preference/approach
Depends on position
Dressings
Abdominal: steri-strips, telfa, xeroflo,
4x4s, ABD (surgeon’s preference)
Vaginal packing
Peri-pad
Net panties
Drains
JP
Snyder
Hemovac/Grenade
Penrose
Depends on location of surgical wound and
surgeon preference
Post-operative Care
Discharge same day to 5 days hospitalization
Early ambulation
TED hose
Turn/cough/deep breath
Drink plenty of fluids
Avoid heavy lifting >10lbs. at least 6 weeks
urine may be pink tinged to red/should clear in few days
S/X Infection: incision red, warm, painful, purulent drainage
S/SX UTI: fever, chills, hematuria, flank pain, sudden increase
in urinary output
Complications
Infection
Nicking ureters, bladder, urethra, reproductive organs
Hemorrhage (major blood vessel proximity)
Adhesions
Sciatic nerve damage due to spinal placement
Blood clot (thrombosis)
DVT
PE (pulmonary embolus)
Summary
Terminology
Anatomy & Physiology
Pathology
Diagnostic & Pre-operative Testing
Anesthesia & Medications
Basic Instrumentation, Supplies, & Equipment
Incision Site Options
Positioning, Prep, & Draping
Dressings, Drains, & Post-operative Care