Transcript Theories of History

Theories of History
K.J. Benoy
Schools of Thought
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Historians (and non-historians) seek to make sense of
the past.
They look for patterns.
They seek truths.
What they find shapes their conclusions.
If they are not intellectually honest, their existing
ideas may determine what they seek in the past – and
therefore reinforce pre-determined beliefs – not unlike
a science student “cooking” his experimental results.
Since we all have biases, a good historian must be
aware of his own and must avoid a myopic approach
and be willing to change positions if the evidence
warrants it.
Schools of Thought
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It is possible to see
clusters of historical
interpretations – these are
referred to as schools of
thought.
 Sometimes historical
writers fit comfortably
into one particular school.
Sometimes they straddle
two or more.
Cyclical
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This suggests that history
repeats itself over time. There is
no real progress.
• Such views were common in the
ancient world -- Herodotus and
Thucydides suggested this. SsuMa Ch’ien, in China, believed in
dynastic cycles.
• Mesoamerican civilizations
believed in this.
• During the Renaissance Petrarch
and Machiavelli recycled the idea.
• In modern times Toynbee and
Spengler have also believed in it.
Linear
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Followers of these theories believe in progress.
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St. Augustine.
Ibn Khaldun
Voltaire
Karl Marx
They believe that the world can made better.
Linear II
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For the Jews there was
the notion of God’s
forgiveness and belief
in the future coming of
a messiah would bring
redemption.
 Many argue that
Christianity changed
Western thinking.
• Christ had come to
redeem mankind.
Linear III
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The ideology of
Liberalism assumes the
notion of progress and the
slang term for liberal,
whig, is given to the
approach of liberal
historians – the Whig
View of History.
 Socialists and
Communists similarly
believe in the notion of
progress.
Great Man
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Followers of the Great
Man Theory suggest that
individuals, through the
power of their character or
intellect, determine the
course of history.
• Event making men cause
events to take place.
• Eventful men are famous
through their association
with important events that
they did not themselves
cause to occur
Everyman
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Opposing the Great Man
Theory is a belief that it is
the cumulative efforts of the
many, not a small elite, that
shapes the world.
• Anthropologists, sociologists
and psychologists often voice
these ideas.
• Social historians also tend to
focus their efforts on
examining ordinary lives.
French historian Philippe
Aries popularized social
history
Great Ideas - Philosophic History
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Proponents of such theories
believe that history is moved
along by changing ideas.
• G.W.F. Hegel believed in a dialectic
whereby an idea (thesis) us posed and
challenged (antithesis). A synthesis is
arrived at, which becomes a new
thesis, to be challenged again. History
is, therefore, the development of
consciousness.
•Karl Marx insisted that economic
shifts moved history along – what
matters is ownership of the means of
production. (Dialectical Materialism)
Great Ideas - Philosophic History II
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Determinists believe that there are
fundamental laws of history.
• They often see history as moving
toward a goal of some kind.
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Marx felt that the world was
moving inexorably to Communism.
The modern Ammerican historian
Fukuyama believes that western
liberal democracy now reigns
supreme -- bringing an “end to
history” in that the battle of 20th
century ideologies was won.
Geographic - Geopolitical
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Yet others believe that
the landscape or
environment is a chief
determinant of history.
• Immanuel Kant
• Halford Mackinder
• Alfred Thayer Mahan
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Geography determines
potential and needs.
Ecological History & Ecofeminism
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“New Age” thinking has produced
distinctly late 20th century and 21st
century strains of thought.
• Christopher B. Jones talks of the “Gaia
Hypothesis” - of ecological
determinism
• Riane Eisler postulates an ecological
and feminist viewpoint.
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Such theorists often attack
traditional history as oppressive.
They want fundamental change in
society’s way of thinking.
The Realist (Conservative)
 Conservative Historians
School
believe that the international
system is inherently anarchical.
 They feel nation states must
pursue their own interests
within this system.
 They believe states act
rationally to maintain their
own security.
 To do this, they must be
militarily strong so as to
preserve or improve their
position in the international
balance of power.
 Maintaining security is a zero
sum game.
Postmodernism
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Many argue that
postmodernist philosophical
thought is a threat to the
viability of the study of
history.
• Postmodernists agree with
Nietszche, who said “There are
no facts, only interpretations.”
Postmodernism II
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Deconstructionist thought is connected to this.
Deconstructionists believe that language is incapable of
describing truth – so the premise of History is false.
Deconstructionists do not believe in certainties. They
are often called “relativists” because they question
existing values and suggest we cannot find certainties
anywhere.
They tend to come from “New Left” backgrounds who
reject tradition and aim to construct a “better” future.
Political correctness is a trend that comes out of this.
By eliminating words from our vocabulary,
practitioners hope to destroy the ability to formulate
bad ideas.
Postmodernism III
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The most significant postmodernist
thinker is Michel Foucault.
Foucault rejects mainstream
Western thought since the
enlightenment.
The husband of Canada’s
Governor General, John Ralston
Saul, accepts this view. One of his
book titles, Voltaire’s Bastards; the
Dictatorship of Reason in the West,
clearly shows his hostility.
Defending History
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Keith Windschuttle recently wrote a book entitled The
Killing of History: How a Discipline is Being
Murdered by Literary Critics and Social Theorists.
He argues:
• “The study of history is essentially a search for the
truth…those who insist that all historic evidence is
inherently subjective are wrong…one of the most
common experiences of historians is that the evidence
they find forces them, often reluctantly, to change the
position they originally intended to take.”
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Historians have generally mustered more convincing
evidence in support of their conclusions than have
their critics.
Conclusion
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Historians of all varieties, and their critics, play
an important role in encouraging thought.
If studying history is worthwhile, we should
understand why.
We should also understand that for it to have
meaning, it must be honestly pursued.
Historians must look to evidence to support or
refute their views.
“The truth is out there.”