Transcript BBI 3213 (Speech Communication)

BBI 3213 (Speech Communication)
CREDITS:
3 (3+0)
LECTURER:
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohd Faiz Abdullah
Department of English
Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication
UPM
FBMK UPM 2007
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication)
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UNIT 2: FUNDAMENTALS OF
SPEECH COMMUNICATION
At the end of the unit, students are able to:
 identify the major areas of speech
communication,
 explain the general influence of culture and its
relevance to communication,
 define communication and its components, and
 describe the relevance of general principles of
communication to real life situations.
FBMK UPM 2007
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/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication)
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Three Views about Speech
Communication
Linear View:
A (speaker) =====> B (listener)
 The Interactional View
A (speaker) =======> B (listener)
A (speaker) <======= B (listener)
 The Transactional View
A =================B
(speaker/listener)
(speaker/listener)

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/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication)
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Models of Speech Communication
The Message Model
 derived from theories of animal communication
systems
 sender encodes the message (M) into a public
signal and the message receiver decodes the
public signal
 Also known as the ‘two-box’ model
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The Message Model
SPEAKER
(M)
HEARER
(M)
(E)
Public Sounds
Encoding
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Decoding
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Assumptions of the Message Model

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Speaker has some Message (M) in his mind that s/he wants to
communicate to Listener
Speaker uses language knowledge to encode the meaning of the
Message (M) to produce the Expression (E)
Expression (E) comprises a series of public sounds
On hearing the beginning of (E), hearer starts a decoding
process:
 Identifies incoming phonological (sound), morphological
(word), and syntactic (clause/sentence) categories, and
semantic content (meanings) in sequence
 Composes meaning of incoming sounds as successfully
decoded message
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/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication)
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Assumptions of the message model
(cont’d…)

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
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Model predicts that speech communication is
successful as long as the hearer decodes the same
message that the speaker has encoded
Conversely, communication unsuccessful or broken
down if decoded message is different from encoded
message
In sum, private ideas are communicated by making
public sounds with the use of language as medium or
vehicle of transmission of verbal message
Classic ‘conduit’ model of language as communication
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Problems with the Message Model

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Linguistically ambiguous expressions e.g. Flying
planes can be dangerous (hearer presumes speaker's
remarks to be contextually appropriate);
Unique shared reference in expressions E.g. The
shrewd politician won the election (dependent upon context
i.e. different people in different contexts);
Communicative intent E.g. I'll be there tonight. (Is it a
prediction, promise, or a threat?);
Non-literal speech (for purposes of irony, sarcasm,
figurative use of language) i.e. in certain contexts, we
mean the opposite of what we actually say;
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Problems with the Message Model(cont’d…)

Indirect speech - one communicative act is achieved by means of
another within an appropriate context i.e. same expression to
achieve different effects in appropriate contexts
E.g. (a) My car has a flat tyre. (At a petrol station): direct speech
>> reporting state of affairs; indirect speech >>asking for help
from pump attendant
(b) My car has a flat tyre. (To a police officer): direct speech
>>reporting state of affairs; indirect speech >>pleading against
illegal parking?

Situations where the goal is not message communication but an
effect or change in the target situation E.g. firing someone from
a job, passing sentence on a guilty person, intention to persuade,
impress, deceive etc.
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Message Model – Summary


Does not take into account shared system of
beliefs, values, attitudes, and inferences that
function as communication strategies in context
Learning to communicate involves acquiring a
range of such shared culture systems,
presumptions as well as a system of inferential
strategies.
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Presumptions of the Inferential Model of
Language Communication

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LP (Linguistic Presumption) i.e. the speaker is capable
of determining the meaning and the referents of the
expression;
CP (Communicative Presumption) - speaker has an
identifiable communication intent unless there is
evidence to the contrary;
PL (Presumption of Literalness) - listener assumes
that speaker is speaking literally
ConPs (Conversational Presumptions): Relevance,
Sincerity, Truthfulness, Quantity, Quality (Cf. Paul
Grice's 'co-operative principle' [1975])
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The Co-operative Principle
The Co-operative Principle (Grice, 1975) refers to the
‘rules for co-operation’ between speakers and listeners
so that communication can take place. Comprises such
rules called ‘conversational maxims’:
 Maxim of Quantity (speak only as much as necessary)
 Maxim of Quality (speak truthfully)
 Maxim of Relevance (speak only about relevant things)
 Maxim of Manner (speak clearly and briefly)
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The Co-operative Principle
(cont’d…)


Maxims are used to imply meaning (conversational
implicature)
E.g. A: Let's go to the movies. (Invitation)
B: I have an exam tomorrow. (Refusal)
(Maxim of Relevance at work)
The Reality Principle refers to the ‘rule’ that people are
expected to talk about real and possible things, unless
there is evidence to the contrary
E.g. A: How are you going to New York?
B: I'm flying.
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/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication)
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Basic Elements in the Speech
Communication Process
Role of specific speech skills and competencies
 Integrity
 Knowledge
 Rhetorical sensitivity
 expressive, and instrumental purposes
 ‘Other’ orientation (i.e. being sensitive to the
listener’s needs and problems
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Basic Elements (cont’d…)
Oral skills:
 Fluency
 Articulation
 Voice control
 Body language
 Other non-verbal aspects
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The Transactional Model
Context of Situation
Channel
Speaker/Hearer
(Attributes)
Message/Feedback
Speaker/Hearer
(Attributes)
Noise
Context of Culture
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The Transactional Model of Speech
Communication
An effective speech communication act as an interplay
among various elements:

Speaker

Listener

Message

Feedback

Channel

Speech situation

Cultural context
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The Transactional Model (cont’d…)
The elements involved in the speech
communication process function interactively and
dynamically as:
 change in one element affects others (the
‘spider’s web’ effect).
 no single element controls the entire process.
 the whole process is context-sensitive.
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Components/Elements of Speech
Communication
Context of Culture:

Norms, values, beliefs, attitudes, rules and cultural
maxims

Elements of speech communication are culturespecific

Incidence of intercultural contact

Cross-cultural presentations

Role of culture in communication competence
(enculturation and acculturation)

Speech in public as transaction
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Components of speech
(cont’d…)
Speaker (Source-Receiver):

an indispensable component in speech transactions

source-encoding, simultaneous encoding and decoding,

Purpose – to entertain, inform, persuade, actuate etc.

Knowledge – subject-area competence, ands speaking skills

Attitudes – towards self, listeners and subject; involves power
relations with listeners and/or audience
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Credibility (Ethos) – listener’s audience’s estimation of the
speaker’s worth. It is perhaps the most important element that
determines the acceptance of the speaker’s message.
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/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication)
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Components of speech
(cont’d…)
Listener (Source-Receiver):

an indispensable component in speech transactions

source-encoding, simultaneous encoding and decoding,

Purpose- like speakers, listeners have their own purposes for listening and
these must be taken into account by the speaker; multiple purposes

Knowledge and interest- affect response to speaker’s message – need for
speakers to be aware of these in a general way so that expectations can be
met to some extent

Listening skills – processing of the oral message -the speaker must look for
evident signs of understanding and non-understanding

Attitudes about the speaker, the self, and the topic – importance of
audience analysis before public speeches are made more effective
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/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication)
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Components of speech
(cont’d…)
Context of Situation:

physical setting (physical environment, furniture,
lighting, audio-visual equipment etc.)

socio-psychological setting –social expectations and
norms in specific settings– comprises interactions
involving: people (relationships and levels of
formality); place (classroom setting, ‘home’ setting);
purpose (memorial service, political debate)

temporal setting (time of day influences
message/feedback timing)

Includes immediate cultural setting
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/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication)
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Components of speech
(cont’d…)
Channel:

media through which the message passes. Often
multiple channels are in operation simultaneously:

verbal channel (words, phrases and sentences)

visual channel (gestures, facial expressions, body
language)

pictorial channel (visual aids – charts, slides, graphs,
objects)

aural channel (voice)

paralinguistic channel (voice tone, pitch, loudness,
speech tone, emotional overtones)
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Components of speech
(cont’d…)
Message:

Has content, structure, and style:
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Content – central topic and sub-topics, subject-matter, and
issues
Structure – pattern of organisation of speech or
conversation that provides idea coherence
Style – language variety, levels of formality, rhetoric and
diction
Influenced by interaction of other elements in
communication context (situation and culture).
Each message is a packages of verbal and/or nonverbal signals.
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/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication)
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Components of speech
(cont’d…)
Feedback:
 Special categories of messages that can be
divided into feedback and feedforward
 Feedback - messages that are sent back to the
speaker as a reaction to what was said - basis
for speaker to modify/adjust subsequent
messages which become feedback to listener.
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/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication)
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Components of speech
(cont’d…)
Noise:

Physical – interference in the physical transaction
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Psychological – cognitive or mental interference

Semantic – conflict of meanings
Communication Effects :

intellectual, affective, and/or psychomotor changes in
speakers and listeners

every act of speech communication has consequence
of some kind
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Some Notes on Feedback
6 important dimensions of feedback:
positive ==================== negative
person-focused ============== message-focused
immediate ==================== delayed
low-monitoring ===============high monitoring
supportive =====================critical
spontaneous ==============structured responses
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Feedback (cont’d…)
Feedback orientations*:
 Left orientation: intimate, interpersonal
relationships
 Middle orientation: acquaintance relationships
 Right orientation: relatively hostile, uneasy
relationships
*Orientations are not mutually exclusive
categories, i.e. feedback can be supportive as
well as critical (evaluative feedback)
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/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication)
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Feedback (cont’d…)
Feedforward:
 -information provided by speaker before
sending a particular message to indicate nature
of the message
E.g. preface to a book, topic sentence of a
paragraph, introduction to a public speech
 function as metamessage
E.g. Wait till you hear this!
I'm going to tell you a secret.
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Feedback (cont’d…)
Main functions of feedforward messages:

to initiate channels of communication
E.g. phatic communion: Haven't we met before?

to preview future messages
E.g. I'm afraid I have bad news for you.

to altercast - to assign a specific role to someone and address
that person in that role
E.g. As a parent, what do you think…

to disclaim - to position message so that it does not reflect
negatively on the speaker
E.g. I'm not supporting or denouncing the government, but
I…
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/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication)
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Speech communication
is social power…
“Communication is power. Those who have mastered its
effective use can change their own experience of the world
and the world’s experience of them.” (Anthony Robbins)
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/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication)
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