Transcript In a Nutshell - Socorro Independent School District

In a Nutshell – Key Questions and
Concepts on Historical Eras
By M.A. Rivera
Colonial Era and American Revolution
– In a Nutshell
 Early 1600’s British settle American colonies because of
adventure, fortune, and liberty
 Ideas of representative government, religious freedom, and
freedom of the press were well-established by the time of the
American Revolution
 After French and Indian War in 1763 – tensions between U.S.
and Britain increase
 At end of American Revolution, Britain recognizes U.S. as
independent
What major religious groups settled in the
original thirteen colonies?
 Puritans – Massachusetts
 Roman Catholics – Maryland (Chesapeake Bay)
 Quakers – Pennsylvania
 Anglicans in the southern colonies
 Puritan intolerance led to establishment of Rhode Island
What was the last of the thirteen
colonies?
 Georgia
 Founded as haven for debtors
 Buffer between Spanish and English colonies
What was the Great Awakening?
 Wave of religious enthusiasm in the late 1730s to 1760s
 Characterized by emotionalism and individualism
 Leads to creation of new religious groups and strengthens
belief in religious freedom
Why did the English go to war against
the French and Indians in 1754?
 A struggle for control of the Ohio Valley
 France lost empire in North America
What caused the American Revolution?
 French and Indian War ended
 British government tried to regulate and tax colonies to pay for
the war
 Policies spark protests that lead to the war in 1775
When did Americans declare independence
from Britain?
 One year after fighting for:
 “rights of Englishmen”
 “taxation without representation
 Inspired by Thomas Paine’s Common Sense
 Written by Thomas Jefferson
What significant battles led to the
American victory over the English forces?
 American victory in Saratoga, New York inspired French to
actively support Americans
 Ends in 1781 in the Battle of Yorktown, Virginia led by George
Washington defeated General Cornwallis’ British army
 Treaty of Paris of 1783 puts an end to the American Revolution
The New Republic – In a Nutshell
 Weaknesses in national government under Articles of
Confederation led to Constitutional Convention where new,
more powerful central government was created
 1790s – George Washington presides over creation of new
government
 Political parties created during Washington’s tenure
 Party division, territorial growth and a war in Europe shape
U.S. history in the early 19th century
What event prompted delegates to
write a new constitution?
 Daniel Shays led a rebellion of debtor farmers against MA
government in winter of 1786-1787
 Unsuccessful but made prominent Americans aware that the
Confederation Congress was powerless to protect the nation
from invasion or domestic violence
Who attended the Constitutional
Convention?
 Rhode Island boycotts
 55 delegates from 12 states attended Constitutional Convention in
Philadelphia in 1787
 George Washington of Virginia presided
 Alexander Hamilton of New York spoke in favor of strong central
government
 Ben Franklin of Pennsylvania gave prestige
 James Madison of Virginia considered the “Father of the Constitution”
 John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and Patrick Henry did not attend
What was the Virginia Plan?
 Edmund Randolph of Virginia introduces plan of
 bicameral (two houses) legislature
 an executive elected by the legislature, and
 a separate judiciary
 Lower house elected by people, upper house elected by lower
house
 Representation based on population
What was the New Jersey Plan?
 William Paterson of New Jersey
 Plan presents a desire of small states to have equal
representation in unicameral (one house) legislature
What was the Great Compromise?
 Delegates from Connecticut introduce compromise
 Federal legislature is bicameral
 Upper house (Senate) based on equal representation from each state
 Lower House (House of Representatives) based on population
What was the Three-Fifths
Compromise?
 Delegates decided to count slaves as 3/5 of a person for both
taxation and representation.
What form of government was created
by the U.S. Constitution?
 Republican form of government based on separation of
powers between three branches of government
 Executive
 Legislative
 Judicial
 Federal system of government that separates powers between
national government and state government
What arguments were presented in the
debate over ratification of the U.S.
Constitution?
 Antifederalists
 Believed new government would destroy power of the states
and not protect individual rights
 Federalists
 Believed strengthening central government would provide
stability and power to prevent foreign domination and domestic
rebellion
 Believed creating a republican government with limited power
would protect the rights of the people
When was the Constitution ratified?
 1788 after required 9 of 13 states voted for adopting the new
form of government
 Only Rhode Island and North Carolina voted against
ratification
 New government took power in 1789
What were the major achievements of
George Washington and the First
Congress?
 Established Executive Departments
 State, Treasury, and War
 Created a Federal Court System with a Supreme Court
 Passed a Revenue Tariff
 Adapted the first ten amendments (Bill of Rights) and ratified
them in 1791
What policies did Alexander Hamilton
adopt to strengthen the nation’s
financial policies?
 To fund federal debt, Secretary of Treasury raised money through
 Excise taxes
 Tariffs
 Sale of western land
 Proposed federal bank take over states’ debts
 Created of strong national currency
 Created the Bank of the United States, a private bank where
federal government deposited federal funds
 In showing financial responsibility, Hamilton’s policies
strengthened the power of the national government
What criticisms were leveled at
Hamilton’s financial policies?
 Tariff created higher prices – states didn’t like paying other
states’ debts
 Farmers in Pennsylvania protested excise tax on whiskey
(Whiskey Rebellion) – a protest that ended when Washington
sent in Federal troops
 Bank of the United States criticized for favoring the wealthy,
northerners and lack of constitutionality
How did the French Revolution affect
the United States?
 At first, most Americans support French Revolution in 1789
 Attitudes changed when France declared war on Britain,
Spain and Holland
 President Washington proclaimed neutrality in the European
conflict
Why were political parties created?
 Political and economic differences between Hamilton and
Jefferson launched the two political parties
 Federalists supported
 Hamilton
 Strong central government
 Loose interpretation of the Constitution
 Bank of the United States
 Revenue tariffs
 England in its war against France
 Democratic-Republicans
 Supported Jefferson and opposed all of the other Federalist ideals
What were the most important issues
during John Adams’ presidency?
 Served at a time of great division between political parties
and a potential war with France
 Federalists, controlled the government, passed the Alien and
Sedition Acts to silence Democratic-Republicans’ criticisms
and prevent war with France
What happened in the election of
1800?
 Tie in the Electoral College between John Adams and
Thomas Jefferson
 Jefferson elected by the House of Representatives to be the
3rd President of the U.S.
 Established important precedent of transition between two
different political parties from Federalists to DemocraticRepublicans
Who was John Marshall?
 Chief Justice from 1801-1835
 Handed down decisions that strengthened the national
government and the power of the Supreme Court
 Supported private property
 Helped establish the American free market system
Westward Expansion – In a Nutshell
 A period of strong nationalism emerged in 1815 after the end of
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the second war with Great Britain
The Age of Jackson (1824-1840) was marked by new system of
party politics, numerous political changes, and a variety of social
reform movements
The U.S. fulfilled many expansionist goals in the 1840s
Before 1860 the North and South separated by economic, political
and cultural differences that became more difficult to compromise
After the election of Abraham Lincoln, several southern states
seceded from the Union, an action that led to the American Civil
War in 1861
How did the United States gain
Louisiana?
 Thomas Jefferson, against his strict interpretation of the
Constitution principle purchased Louisiana from France
 Doubles size of the U.S.
 Gives the U.S. full control of the Mississippi River
Why did the U.S. go into war in 1812?
 1810 – New generation of political leaders known as War
Hawks elected to Congress
 Pressure President James Madison to go to War
 Causes:
 England’s violation of Freedom of Seas
 Problems Americans had with Indians in the Northwest
 Desire to annex Canada (territorial growth)
 Impressments
 Treaty of Ghent restores conditions to how they were before
What is the Era of Good Feelings?
 Period following the War of 1812 characterized by strong
nationalism and only one major political party
What was the American System?
 Henry Clay introduced the American System
 Proposal to make the U.S. economically self-sufficient
 Plan includes a Second Bank of the United States, protective
tariffs and internal improvements at a federal expense
What were the most important issues
of James Monroe’s presidency?
 Obtained Florida from Spain
 Issued the Monroe Doctrine, declaring that U.S. would not
allow European colonization or interference in Latin America
Who won the election of 1824?
 Andrew Jackson won the popular vote and the most electoral
votes; he did not have the majority of the electoral votes
 John Quincy Adams elected president by the House of
Representatives
How did the election of 1824 bring the
Era of Good Feelings to an End?
 Jackson’s supporters charged that John Quincy Adams’
election was a “corrupt bargain” where Henry Clay was made
secretary of state in return for his support of Adams.
 Brought about two political parties
 Supporters of Jackson – Democrats
 Supporters of Adams and Clay -Whigs
What was Jacksonian Democracy?
 Refers to the general extension of democracy between 1824
and 1828
 Primary from lower classes in rebellion to aristocracy
 Contradicted their idea of equality as pro-slavery and antiIndian
How did Jackson expand the powers of
the presidency?
 Used his veto power extensively
 Defied Supreme Court orders
 Justified his actions by claiming that the presidency was the
only office representing all the people
What was Jackson’s policy toward
American Indians?
 Policy of “removal”
 Believed Indian land must be open to economic development
 Forced natives to move west of the Mississippi River
How did Jackson destroy the Bank of
the United States?
 Congress voted to re-charter the 2nd Bank of the United
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States in 1832.
Jackson vetoed the Recharter Bill.
Withdrew government funds from Bank and placed them in
state banks or “pet” banks
Led to runaway inflation
Jackson issues Specie Circular (executive order states that all
land must be paid in gold/silver) which leads to the Panic of
1837
Who succeeded Andrew Jackson as
president?
 1836 – Martin Van Buren – hand-picked by Jackson to be
president.
 Later blamed for Panic of 1837 and not re-elected.
 1840 –William Henry Harrison elected president with John
Tyler as vice president.
 Both parties seek votes
 Known as first “modern” election
 Harrison died after 1 month in office
 Tyler 1st Vice-President elevated to President due to the death
of a President
How did the election of 1844 change
the U.S.?
 James K. Polk, a Democrat, elected on platform of
 “Re-annexation” of Texas
 “Re-occupation” of Oregon
 U.S. annexed independent Texas
 In treaty with Great Britain, Oregon territory is annexed
 Annexed land after war with Mexico
 Mexican-American War began after General Zachary Taylor
clashed with Mexican troops near the Rio Grande
 U.S. gains land after Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo for $15 million
What were the differences between
northern and southern states before the
Civil War?
 North
 Growing manufacturing economy
 Several political changes
 Variety of dynamic reform movements
 South
 Remained primarily agricultural based on cotton and plantation
system
What were the political differences between
northern and southern states before the
Civil War?
 Northerners generally supported
 The Bank of the United States
 A protective tariff
 Internal improvements at federal expense
 Prohibition of slavery in the new territories
 Southerners generally disagreed with Northerners on these
issues
What did northerners think of slavery?
 Although abolitionist movements were growing in the North,
most did not sympathize with abolitionists until the 1850s
 Abolitionist supporters felt it was morally wrong
 Abolitionists believed
 Slavery led to inhumane treatment of blacks
 Violated principles of democracy
 Violated teachings of the Bible
What did southerners think of slavery?
 Although most southerners did not own slaves, they
supported slavery
 Argued:
 It always existed
 Was more humane than northern capitalism
 Was sanctioned by the Bible
How were the differences settled
before the 1850s?
 End of Mexican-American War in 1848 marked a turning
point in the conflict.
 Land obtained intensified debate over slavery in the new
territories
 Difficult to compromise because addition of states would offset
the political balance in government especially the Senate
What was the Compromise of 1850?
 California became a free state and Congress adopted a
Fugitive Slave Law.
 Slave trade abolished in District of Columbia (D.C.)
 Slavery in New Mexico and Utah based on popular sovereignty
 Texas boundary would be reduced
 Texas debt paid by the Federal government
What effect did Uncle Tom’s Cabin
have on sectional differences?
 Written by Harriet Beecher Stowe
 Stirred conscience of the North
 Increased anti-slavery sentiment
What was the Kansas-Nebraska Act?
 Authored by Senator Stephen Douglas
 Passed as provision for creating territorial governments in
Kansas and Nebraska
 Repealed the Missouri Compromise by ensuring that the
slavery issues was not solved by the 36⁰ 30’ line but by
popular sovereignty
Why was the Republican Party
created?
 Whig party split
 Northerners looking for alternative to Democratic Party’s
support of popular sovereignty
 Kansas-Nebraska Act passing leads to creation of Republican
Party – opposed to popular sovereignty and extension of
slavery into new territories
What was the Dred Scott decision?
 Victory for southern slaveowners
 Supreme Court case in 1857 that stated that blacks were not
citizens and could not sue in federal court.
 Court ruled that Congress could not outlaw slavery in
territories because it would deprive slaveowners of their
property and deny a fundamental right guaranteed by the
Constitution.
What were the Lincoln-Douglas
debates?
 Election for U.S. Senate in 1858
 Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas debated in Illinois
 Douglas won the election
 Lincoln becomes nationally known
 Douglas argued that Congress might not keep slavery out of the
territories but people could
What happened at Harper’s Ferry,
Virginia in 1859?
 John Brown, a radical abolitionist, led a raid on a Federal
arsenal at Harper’s Ferry
 Hoped to seize weapons and start a slave revolt in the South
 Captured and charged with treason
 Executed and martyred by many Northerners.
 Southerners saw Brown as part of a conspiracy and increased
their own rhetoric
What happened in the election of
1860?
 Abraham Lincoln won a minority of popular votes running
against three (3) other candidates
 Won a majority of electoral votes
 Chosen sixteenth (16th) president of the U.S.
 Seven (7) southern states responded by seceding and forming
the Confederate States of America
In a Nutshell – The Civil War
 Union forces seemed to have numerous advantages but
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Confederate forces win some key battles at the beginning of
the war
After victories at Vicksburg and Gettysburg, Union begins to
win the war
Reconstruction begins after the war
President Johnson and Congress clash over policies,
specifically with regard to former slaves
Reconstruction ends in 1877 when northern troops pulled
out of the South
When did the Civil War begin?
 April 12, 1861 when Confederate troops attacked Union
forces at Ft. Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina.
 President Lincoln calls on group of volunteers to put down
rebellion
 4 southern states secede and join 7 states already in
Confederacy (total of 11)
What was the Emancipation
Proclamation?
 Issued after important northern victory in Antietam,
Maryland
 Freed all slaves living in rebelling states
 Inspired northern population to win support of European
nations
What were the northern
advantages in the Civil War?
 South had better military leadership and fighting a defensive
war on their soil
 Northern advantages included:
 Population
 Industrial resources
 Agricultural resources
 Naval resources
 Financial resources
 Were over-confident and expected a short resolution to the
war
What were the northern and
southern strategies to win the Civil
War?
 North
 Blockade of Confederacy
 Attempt to control Mississippi River
 Attempt to capture Richmond, Virginia
 South
 Based on protecting five (5) key cities:
 Richmond
 New Orleans
 Vicksburg
 Chattanooga
 Atlanta
Why did southerners believe “King
Cotton” would win the war?
 Hoped that England’s need for cotton would lead to their
support
 Cotton surpluses in Egypt and India and British need for
northern wheat forced England not to support South fully
Why was the Battle of the Bull Run
important?
 South won the first major battle of the war
 Southerners became overconfident
 Northerners begin preparing for long, difficult war
Why was the year 1863 considered
the turning point of the Civil War?
 Confederacy won many great victories prior to 1863
 Battle of Vicksburg (1863)
 North takes over Mississippi Rivera
 Battle of Gettysburg (1863)
 North demonstrates that South will never be able to successfully
invade the North
When did the Civil War end?
 Robert E. Lee and his Confederate forces surrender
 Forces led by General Ulysses S. Grant
 Appomattox Court House
 April 9, 1865
What were some of the long-term
results of the Civil War?
 Slavery abolished
 Supremacy of federal government established
 Northern industry begins dominating the economy
What political questions needed to
be answered with the U.S.
government’s Reconstruction
policy?
 U.S. government decided what conditions southern states
should meet to re-join the Union
 Whether the president or Congress most responsible for
making Reconstruction policy
 What rights should be granted to former slaves
What were the Reconstruction
policies of the Lincoln-Johnson
administrations?
 Lincoln’s policies
 Based on his belief that southern states had not seceded
(southern states had been in state of rebellion)
 Believed president was most responsible for Reconstruction
policies because he had the power of pardon
 Believed policies should be lenient to southerners in order to
gain loyalty
 Assassination in April 14, 1865 put southerner, Andrew
Johnson in office
 Generally tried to follow Lincoln policies
 Let southern states determine legal status of freed slaves
What were the Black Codes?
 Implemented by Southern states immediately after Civil War
 Restricted the rights of African Americans by denying them
the right to
 Bear arms
 Serve on juries
 Sue whites
 Testify against whites
What were the Reconstruction
policies of the Radical Republicans
in the U.S. Congress?
 Treated the South as if it was a conquered territory
 Wanted to punish the South
 Wanted to protect legal rights of freed slaves
 Congressional power to admit new states led them to believe
they had a right to determine Reconstruction policies
Why was President Johnson
impeached?
 He faced a political stalemate with Congress
 Impeached on the grounds that he violated the Tenure of
Office Act
 Senate failed by one vote to convict him and remove him
from office
What effect did the election of
Ulysses S. Grant have on
Reconstruction policies?
 Election of Grant in 1868 gave Radical Republicans a
president willing to carry out their policies
What were the results of the
Reconstruction policies of the
Radical Republicans?
 Return of all southern states to the Union by 1870
 Were under “carpetbag” governments and enforced Radical
policies
 Increased sectional bitterness
 Southern vigilante groups tried to “redeem” the South
 Tried to deny the power of carpetbaggers (northerners),
scalawags (southern Republicans), and African-Americans.
What effect did the election of
1876 have on Reconstruction
policies?
 Rutherford Hayes was sworn in as President after he agreed
to pull northern troops out of the south.
 Reconstruction comes to an end after President Hayes pulls
the troops from the South
What happened to AfricanAmericans after U.S. troops pulled
out of the South?
 Found themselves at the mercy of southern state
governments after U.S. troops pulled out
 Race relations remain moderate because of leadership of
Booker T. Washington and southern Bourbons
 1890s – southern states began to deny African-Americans the
right to vote (Jim Crow laws) and a rigid segregation
established
In a Nutshell - The Gilded Age (and
2nd Industrial Revolution)
 U.S. experienced industrial takeoff in the late 1800s
 Industrialization increased power and the standard of living
 Industrialization also creates many problems for farmers,
workers and consumers
 Problems lead to the desire for government intervention in
the economy
How did the U.S. economy change
after the Civil War?
 Corporations formed the basis for economic wealth
 U.S. entered industrial takeoff in the late 1800s
 Industrial revolution leads to
 Urbanization
 Improved standard of living
 Greater concentration of wealth and power in fewer people
 Growth of labor unions
 By 1890s – U.S. leading industrial nation in the world
 By 1917 – U.S. a creditor nation for the first time
How did the U.S. government react
to the Industrial Revolution in the
late 19th century?
 Laissez Faire
 Allowed a few individuals to accumulate wealth and eliminate
competition
What effect did the industrial
revolution have on the union
movement?
 Low pay, long hours, and bad working conditions more
workers join unions
 Workers felt big business ignored the welfare of workers and
demanded collective bargaining agreements with unions
 Labor unions faced many obstacles including:
 General anti-union government policies
 Division amongst the labor groups
 Violent confrontations with business owners and government
What effect did the industrial
revolution have on farmers?
 Farmers faced serious problems in late 1800s
 Railroad monopolies increase the price of shipping
 Deflation of the currency and agricultural overproduction
drive prices down
 Farmers were debtors so deflation made it difficult for them
to repay loans
 Farmers had to pay high prices for manufactured goods
because of protective tariffs and monopolistic pricing
 Organizations protested by demanding government
regulation of business and inflation of the currency
Why was the Populist party
created?
 Democrats and Republicans were unresponsive to needs of
farmers
 Populist Party created in 1889 in demand of:
 Free silver
 Nationalization of railroads
 A progressive income tax
 Women’s suffrage
 Direct election of senators
 Secret ballots
What happened after the election
of 1896?
 Democratic Party and Populist Party nominate William Jennings Bryan for
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president
Republicans nominate William McKinley, a pro-business conservative
McKinley wins and a return to prosperity ends farmers’ protests movement
Populist party died out but most reforms were passed in Progressive Era (19011914).
Election of 1896 established Bryan as a leader of the Democratic Party
 Nominated for president in two more elections
Election of 1896 solidifies a shift in American politics
 Liberalism, traditionally in favor of limited government and laissez-faire
economics, enters new century in favor of big government and regulation of
economy
In a Nutshell - The Progressive Era
(and Imperialism)
 Demands for reform of politics and economics was
widespread in the early 1900s
 Government regulation of economic system began at the
state level but because of national monopolies, help was
needed of federal government in order to get meaningful
reform
 Theodore Roosevelt becomes president and U.S. entered a
period of reform under Roosevelt, William H. Taft, and
Woodrow Wilson.
 The reforms passed under the these three presidents would
institutionalize a regulated capitalism
In a Nutshell - The Progressive Era
(and Imperialism)
 Late 1800s marked the rise of imperialism in the U.S.
 After war with Spain in 1898, U.S. gained territory in the
Pacific and Caribbean
 Theodore Roosevelt expanded the original meaning of the
Monroe Doctrine in Latin America
What was the progressive
movement?
 Response to problems created from a shift in the U.S. society
moved from a rural society to an urban and industrial society
 People who wanted government to solve society’s problems
 In the early 1900s, it focused on government regulation of
big business in order to protect interests of American public
How effective was government
regulation of big business before
1901?
 Regulation starts at state level with several farm states
regulating railroad monopolies
 Supreme Court ends state regulation in Wabash v. Illinois, and
shift turns to federal regulation
 First attempt comes with Interstate Commerce Commission
 Also attempts the Sherman Anti-Trust Act
 Generally ineffective because they were not enforced and
limited by the Supreme Court
 Sherman Anti-Trust Act was used mostly to break up unions
rather than trusts
When did effective regulation of big
business begin at the federal level?
 In 1901 after Theodore Roosevelt became president
 After assassination of William McKinley, Roosevelt, vice-
president and former governor of the state of New York took
over
 Roosevelt selected because big business bosses wanted him out
of New York and wanted him to be “useless” as VP
 Roosevelt begins progressive reform and regulates
 Big business
 Trust busting
 Conservation of natural resources
Did the public support the
Progressive Reforms under
Roosevelt?
 Muckraking journalists graphically exposed social, political,
and economic problems
 Public was beginning to demand government action and
generally supported progressive reforms
 Social Gospel movement had many Americans wanting
government action and apply Jesus’ teachings to social and
industrial problems created by rapid growth of big business
Who became president after
Theodore Roosevelt?
 William Howard Taft was Roosevelt’s hand-picked successor
because of Roosevelt’s popularity
 Continued Roosevelt’s Square Deal by continuing to
 regulate business
 break up trusts
 Conserve natural resources
What happened in 1912?
 In election of 1912, Roosevelt challenged Taft for Republican
nomination
 Because Taft controlled the party machinery, he beat
Roosevelt for the nomination
 Roosevelt ran as a third-party candidate for the Progressive
or “Bull Moose” Party
 Split in Republican party allows Woodrow Wilson, a
Democrat to win the election
What ideas were proposed by
Roosevelt and Wilson in the 1912
election?
 Roosevelt’s New Nationalism
 Big government regulates big business
 Monopolies not harmful if regulated by federal government
 Wilson’s New Freedom
 Monopolies would be broken up
 Breakup would re-establish business competition and allow for
small government
How did the reforms of the
progressive era change the U.S.?
 After pieces of reform passed under Woodrow Wilson,
laissez-faire was replaced by regulated capitalism.
 Reform did not provide government relief to the poor and
needy until Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal of the 1930s
How did U.S. foreign policy change
in the late 1800s?
 Adopted an imperialist foreign policy
 Imperialism was a result of the desire to:
 Protect overseas investments
 Fulfill the “white man’s burden”
 To obtain overseas naval bases
 Imperialism was an extension of the belief of Manifest
Destiny
Why did the United States go to war
against Spain in 1898?
 An attempt to help Cubans gain their independence from
Spain
 Spanish violation of human rights in Cuba and American
jingoism promoted by yellow journalism played a large role
in desire to go to war
 Immediate cause: sinking of U.S.S. Maine in Havana harbor
What were the results of the
Spanish-American War?
 U.S. army not fully prepared
 U.S. financially strong, industrially strong, and had a
powerful navy
 Able to defeat Spain after just sixteen (16) weeks of fighting
 Land:
 Cuba became a protectorate
 Hawaii and the Samoas are annexed
 Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines given to the U.S. as
territories
How did the U.S. obtain the rights to
build a canal through Panama?
 Panama’s independence from Columbia in 1903 allowed U.S.
to build canal through Central America
 Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty
 Panama became U.S. protectorate
 10-mile strip of land through Panama given to the U.S. so that a
canal could be built
What was the Roosevelt Corollary?
 Expanded the meaning of the Monroe Doctrine
 Established the U.S. as the policeman of the Western
Hemisphere
 Used to justify “gunboat” diplomacy.
 “Dollar Diplomacy”
 Roosevelt left office
 President Taft encouraged investment in Latin America
In a Nutshell - World War I
 World War I began in Europe in 1914
 Woodrow Wilson declares neutrality initially
 Enters the War in 1917
 After WWI, President Wilson worked for an idealistic post-
war plan that was rejected by European nations and the U.S.
Senate
What caused World War I?
 European imperialism
 Competition for overseas markets
 Nationalism
 Militarism (military build up and alliances)
 Lack of self-determination
 Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in 1914
set off a series of crises that led to the war
How did President Wilson respond
to European nations goingt o war in
1914?
 Many Americans supported Allied Powers (Britain, France,
and Russia), many supported the Central Powers (Germany,
Austria-Hungary, and Italy)
 President Wilson declared American neutrality initially
 Wilson asked Americans to be “neutral in thoughts as well as
action”
When did American sentiment
begin turning against Germany?
 After sinking of Lusitania in 1915, Americans increasingly
supported the Allied powers
When did the U.S. declare war on
Germany?
 Zimmerman Telegram and Germany continuance of
unrestricted warfare led U.S. to declare war in April 1917
What effect did the entry of U.S.
forces have on World War I?
 American Expeditionary Force led by John J. Pershing
arrived on western front and provided balance for Allied
victory
 Armistice signed in November 1918
What were Wilson’s goals during
World War I?
 Fighting a “war to end war”
 Winning “peace without victory”
 Making “the world safe for democracy”
 All ideas above outlined in Fourteen Points
 Fourteen Points included:
 Removing the causes of war through open diplomacy
 Freedom of the seas
 Removal of tariff barriers
 Reduction in the size of armies
 Colonial independence
 Provisions for self-determination in Europe
 League of Nations
What provisions of Wilson’s
Fourteen Points adopted after
World War I?
 Allied had already made several secret agreements prior to

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Wilson’s arrival in France to divide the spoils of the war
Wilson found Allies wanted revenge against Germany
Britain did not want to allow freedom of the seas
Most 14 Points were rejected
Contrary to Wilson’s desires, Treaty of Versailles punished
Germany in military, territory, and finances
Agreed to the League of Nations
Was the Treaty of Versailles ratified
by the U.S. Senate?
 Wilson worked hard to get Senate ratification
 Senate controlled by Republicans and divided over joining


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
the League of Nations
Democrats, known as internationalists, supported the treaty
while Republicans opposed the treaty
Republican reservationist senators would support treaty if
U.S. troops not used in League actions
Wilson suffered stroke and not able to push for treaty
U.S. signed separate treaty with Germany and never joined
League of Nations
In a Nutshell – The Roaring and
Not-so-Roaring 20s
 Prosperous time where government is generally conservative
and pro-business
 U.S. divided over “city” values and “country” values
What happened during the Red
Scare after World War I?
 Widespread fear of communism and radicalism as a result of

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
the Russian Revolution of 1917
Americans feared that post-war strikes and bombing
sweeping the nation were product of radical influences
Government began jailing radicals and deporting immigrants
(nativism)
Actions led by Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer were
known as the Palmer Raids.
U.S. Intelligence Bureau begins spying on Americans
Although it continued, panic generally ended by 1920 when
it became clear that there was no serious threat and Palmer
was a demagogue
In what ways were Americans
divided in the 1920s?
 “City” versus “Country” values
 Examples of this division were found in the:
 Scopes Trial
 Strength of the Ku Klux Klan
 Prohibition of alcohol
What was the Scopes Trial?
 Product of debate between Religious Fundamentalists and
Modernists
 Issue: teaching of evolution in schools
 John Scopes, a biology teacher, was arrested for teaching
evolution in Dayton, Tennessee
How did the Ku Klux Klan shape
U.S. history in the 1920s?
 Contained over 5 million members
 Worked to “purify” America taking action to restrict the
rights of:
 African Americans
 Jews
 Catholics
 Worked to “protect” America from radicals, immigrants, and
nonconformists
 Late 1920s – KKK declines in power because of corruption
in Klan leadership
What effect did prohibition of
alcohol have on the U.S.?
 Adopted under Volstead Act with good intentions
 Impossible to enforce
 Was openly violated
 Led to disrespect of the law
 Increased organized crime
 Was repealed in 1933
What characterized American
politics in the 1920s?
 Most progressive reforms had been passed in Progressive Era and U.S.
generally prosperous leads to politically conservative decade
 Warren Harding, nominated by Old Guard Republicans was elected on
basis of:
 Lower taxes
 Cuts in government regulations
 Increase in tariffs
 “Normalcy”
 Harding died and Coolidge became president
 Coolidge supported:
 Business interests served untouched by scandals and corruption that
characterized Harding administration
What happened in the election of
1928?
 Democrats nominated Al Smith, first Catholic to be chosen
to run for President
 Smith lost to Herbert Hoover, first Republican since
Reconstruction to win the Solid South
The Great Depression – In a
Nutshell
 Stock Market crash on October 29, 1929 signaled the
beginning of the Great Depression – worst financial crisis in
U.S. History
 Depression got worse – President Hoover followed policy o f
denying government relief to unemployed – not re-elected in
1932
 President Franklin Roosevelt pushed several legislative
programs through Congress in attempt to end Great
Depression
 Depression ends after Americans found employment building
war materials for WWII
What caused the Great
Depression?
 Caused by an economic system out of balance – too much
supply, too little demand
 Created by:
 Monopolistic pricing
 Unsound banking practices
 Overproduction
 High tariffs
 Tightening of money supply by the Federal Reserve Board
What caused the stock market
crash?
 Stock Market Crash of October 1929 caused by:
 A slump in economic activity
 Overspeculation in stocks
 Buying stocks “on margin”
 Stock Market Crash marked the beginning of the Great
Depression
What were the characteristics of
the Great Depression?
 Characteristics include:
 High unemployment
 Loss of farms and businesses
 Closing of Banks
 Driving up of credit
 Low purchasing power
 Hunger among plenty
 Not everyone suffered but many felt capitalism failed and
democracy could not solve the problems
How did President Herbert Hoover
react to the problem?
 Hoover believed in and acted on ideas of:
 “Rugged individualism”
 Minimal government interference
 Supplying optimism
 Expanding public works
 Loaning money to struggling banks
What was the Bonus March?
 Summer of 1932
 20,000 impoverished veterans from World War I marched to
Washington, D.C
 Wanted early pay of financial bonus due in 1945
 Bonus bill failed in Congress
 President Hoover ordered troops to evacuate veterans in
D.C.
 Douglas MacArthur and his army forcefully drove veterans
out of city
 Event ended Hoover’s chance at re-election and fostered
growing fear of revolution in America
What happened in the presidential
election of 1932?
 Economy in rock bottom; Hoover and Republican Party
blamed for Depression
 Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) elected promising to
 Save capitalism
 Help the common man
 Provide work rather than the handout
 FDR remained vague about his plan, but promised to try
something
What was the New Deal?
 FDR’s plan to pull the nation out of the Depression was
known as the New Deal
 Devised by FDRs “brain trust” it instituted policies of:
 Relief for the poor
 Recovery from the Depression
 Reform of the economic system
 First New Deal passed in first 100 days of FDRs presidency
 Growing pressures of left wing of American politics and
leveling of economy in 1935, FDR pushed for a Second New
Deal
 Cut government spending in 1937 to decrease budget deficit
– economy fell back into a recession
Did FDR and the New Deal win the
support of the American public?
 1936 – FDR elected by electoral landslide (523-8).
 Also re-elected in 1940 and 1944
 Became the only president in U.S. history to be elected four
(4) times.
Who were the critics of the New
Deal?
 Criticized by
 The Republican party believed:
 Increase in federal debt was too high
 Government was becoming too big and presidency too powerful
 New Deal was destroying private initiative, would lead to ruinous
inflation, considered “creeping socialism”
 Far left-wing of American politics
 Believed FDR was not doing enough to help poor people
 Called for greater and more equitable distribution of wealth
 Far right-wing of American politics
 Attacked bankers and Jews
Why did FDR try to “pack” the
Supreme Court?
 FDR was angered because Supreme Court declared several
New Deal programs unconstitutional
 Introduced legislation to increase size of Court
 Hoped to place justices favorable to New Deal on the
Supreme Court
 Plan failed and weakened FDR politically
How did the Depression end?
 Depression ended after Americans found employment
producing war materials for World War II
World War II – In an Nutshell
 World War II began in 1939 when Germany invaded Poland
 U.S. entered World War II when Japan attacked Pearl Harbor
in 1941
 Leaders of Allied Nations held several wartime conferences
to discuss military strategies and decide character of postwar
world
 WWII ended after Germany surrendered in May 1945 and
Japan surrendered in August 1945
What were the characteristics of
fascism in the 1920s and 1930s?
 Fascism characterized by extreme nationalism – accompanied
by anti-Marxist, anti-democratic, and social Darwinist beliefs
 Germany – fascist dictator Adolph Hitler
 promised to make Germany a world power
 Blamed communists and Jews for Germany’s problems
 Italy and Japan governed by fascist dictators
How did German aggression lead
to World War II?
 Germany occupied the Rhineland and Austria
 Announced desire to occupy a section of Czechoslovakia
 Britain and France adopted a policy of appeasement toward
Germany
 Policy is ineffective
 Germany invades Czechoslovakia
 European alliance formed to resist German aggression
 August 1939, Germany signed Non-Aggression Pact with
Soviet Union
 Cleared the way for invasion of Poland
 Germany invaded poland September 1939 and began WWII
What happened in Europe after
Germany invaded Poland?
 France fell in 1940
 Great Britain fought alone against Germany
 June 1941 – Germany attacked Soviet Union
What characterized U.S. foreign
policy in the 1920s and 1930s?
 U.S. generally adhered to isolationist foreign policy
 1930s – U.S. desire to stay isolated from global conflicts
leads to Neutrality Acts
 Restricted American involvement with nations at war
 After invasion of Poland and fall of France the U.S. became
and “arsenal of democracy”
 Started supplying Allied nations with war materials
How did the U.S. get involved in
World War II?
 December 1941 – After several years of protest against
Japanese invasion of China – Japan attacked Pearl Harbor,
Hawaii
 U.S. declared war on Japan
 Germany and Italy, Japanese allies, declare war on U.S.
What military problems confronted
the U.S. in WWII?
 U.S. faced greater military problems than WWI
 U.S. fought war on opposite ends of the world at the same
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time
By 1942, Axis powers controlled Europe, North Africa, and
South Pacific
To many Americans, Axis powers seemed unbeatable
U.S. entered war with much less idealism than WWI
Power of American industry eventually provides Allies
resources to win the war
How did the U.S. forces help defeat
Germany?
 Decided to concentrate on beating Germany first, then Japan
 U.S. pushed German forces out of North Africa, Sicily and
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Italy
June 1944 – U.S. opened a second front against Germany
Soviet Union invaded Germany from the east
Other Allied nations invade from the west
Germany surrendered in May 1945
How was Japan defeated?
 Japanese forces occupied southeast Asia and South Pacific
 U.S. began “island hopping”
 In order to avoid invasion and save lives
 Truman ordered atomic bombs dropped on Japan
 Hiroshima (Little Boy) and Nagasaki (Fat Man) bombed
 Ended WWII in August 1945
 Historians believed Truman dropped bomb as show of force
against Soviet Union
What happened at the Yalta
Conference?
 FDR, Winston Churchill and Joseph Stalin met at the Yalta
Conference in 1945
 Discussed final defeat of Axis powers
 Soviet Union consented to enter war against Japan after Germany
 Soviet Union would allow occupation of eastern Europe after the
war
 Stalin would allow “free and unfettered elections”
 After war, Soviet Union violated Yalta agreement
 Established pro-Soviet, communist dictatorships
 Some Americans believed FDR “sold out” to the Soviet Union
 Supporters said FDR was trying to get Soviet Union to help with Japanese
invasion and felt the Soviets would expand its sphere of influence
What happened at the Potsdam
Conference?
 Final wartime conference held in Potsdam, Germany – July
1945
 Stalin represented Soviet Union, Clement Atlee represented
Great Britain, Harry Truman represented the U.S.
 Decided to put Nazis on trial for crimes against humanity
 Allies called for Japan’s unconditional surrender before total
destruction
The Cold War – Truman-Eisenhower
Era – In a Nutshell
 Cold War began after WWII with disagreement between U.S. and Soviet




Union over self-determination in Eastern Europe
American struggle against communism spread to Asia after Communist
forces took over China and after North Korea and South Korea
Struggle against communism overseas led some Americans to believe
communists were in U.S.
President Truman and Eisenhower’s “containment” policy led to
Eisenhower’s expansion of the arms race, beginning of covert operations
by the CIA, and beginning of space race
Heavy consumer spending and increased productivity lead to highest
standard of living the world had every known; some groups don’t hare in
prosperity; social critics attacked American materialism and conformity
How did U.S. foreign policy change
after World War II?
 Adopted internationalist foreign policy
 Joined permanent alliances during peacetime
 Truman’s policy also focused on containment
How was the United Nations (UN)
created?
 UN created after WWII to maintain international peace
 Consists of
 General Assembly – every member nation meets
 Security Council – enforces UN resolutions
 Five permanent members include U.S., Russia (originally Soviet Union,
Great Britain, France, and China
 Each of five members of Security Council was given veto power over
actions
How did the Cold War begin?
 U.S. objected to the Soviet Union’s establishment of satellite
states in Eastern Europe
What happened to Germany after
World War II?
 Germany and the capital city of Berlin divided into four
zones
 Berlin was in East Germany, the Soviet zone of occupation
 Division of Berlin led to great conflict during Cold War
What was the Truman Doctrine?
 U.S. declared it would come to the aid of any country
threatened by communism
 Received bipartisan support
 Announced initially to provide aid to Greece and Turkey
 Cornerstone of U.S. foreign policy for several decades
What was the Marshall Plan?
 1947 – Marshall Plan offered financial aid to spark economic
recovery of Western European nations suffering from WWII
 Provided counterforce to U.S.S.R.
 No nation that received aid because of Marshall Plan ever
turned to communism
Why was NATO created?
 A military alliance of North Atlantic nations
 Established in 1949 to combat Soviet aggression in Europe
 U.S. broke the precedent set by George Washington of not
entering peacetime alliances
When did China turn to
communism?
 Communists took control of China in 1949
 Mao Zedong defeated Chiang Kai-shek, a Nationalist leader of China
 Before civil war, China presented a policy dilemma for President Truman
 Civil war between Communists and Nationalists led to conflicting advice by
the State Department and the Defense Department
 State Department – Communists would win; Chiang Kai-shek was
corrupt; relationship between Chinese and Soviet communism was nonexistent
 Defense Department – loss of China to communists presented
insurmountable strategic loss
 Unable to communist takeover of China, Truman administration was attacked
by some people for “losing” China
 After Communists took over China, Nationalist Chinese relocated to island of
Taiwan
 U.S. did not formally recognize Communist China until 1979
Who was Joseph McCarthy?
 1950 – Joseph McCarthy, senator from Wisconsin
 Announced he had a list of communists working for the State
Department
 Began a five-year crusade against communists in America
 Never uncovered a single communist
 Eventually censured by U.S. Senate for misconduct
 McCarthyism refers to false accusations that an individual is not
loyal to the U.S.
What happened in the Korean
War?
 June 1950 – North Korea invade South Korea
 United Nations sent forces to stop aggression
 Stated goal of U.N.’s “police action” was status quo ante – achieved
by September 1950
 U.N. troops entered North Korea in October 1950
 Chinese troops entered the war
 Chinese push U.N. forces out of North Korea
 General Douglas MacArthur proposed bombing China and
“unleashing Chiang”
 Truman rejects MacArthur’s idea and talking war began until
truce in 1953
 President Truman relieved MacArthur of his command after
MacArthur publicly criticized Truman’s policies
In what ways did Dwight
Eisenhower’s foreign policy differ
from Harry Truman’s foreign policy?
 Dwight Eisenhower continued policy of containment begun
by Harry Truman
 Under Eisenhower, however, summit meetings were held
with Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev in an attempt to
promote “peaceful coexistence”
 “Peaceful coexistence” ended in 1960 when U.S. U-2 spy
plane was shot down over the Soviet Union
What happened politically during
the Truman-Eisenhower era?
 Republicans took control of both houses of Congress after
the 1946 and 1952 elections for the only times between 1932
and 1994.
 1948 - Harry Truman unexpectedly won the presidential
election defeating Thomas Dewey.
 Dwight D. Eisenhower easily defeated Adlai Stevenson in
both the 1952 and 1956 elections
The Civil Rights Movement – In a
Nutshell
 1950s – Supreme Court ruled against racial segregation and
put weight of constitutional laws behind demand for civil
rights
 Mid-50s to mid-60s – the fight for civil rights led primarily
by leaders advocating nonviolence and civil disobedience
 Mid-60s – Congress passed laws promoting civil rights and
voting rights
 Laws strengthened federal government’s power to regulate state
government’s denial of civil rights
 Late 60s – violent protests and race riots
 1970s – debates over civil rights focus on busing and
affirmative action
What was the legal status of
African-Americans before 1954?
 Late 1800s – states pass Jim Crow laws to segregate races
and restrict rights of African-Americans
 Southern states pass laws to keep African-Americans from
voting
 Laws combined with social and economic discrimination
made African-Americans second-class citizens
 1896 Supreme Court case – Plessy v. Ferguson – segregation
was constitutional
 Southern states segregated by law and on purpose
 Northern states segregated based on racism (not law) and by
default (people didn’t know how to do anything else)
When did protests against
segregation and discrimination
begin to make a difference?
 Federal government responded to African-Americans’
protest when FDR banned discrimination in the war
industries
 After WWII, Harry Truman integrated the armed forces
How did Brown v. the Board of
Education of Topeka, Kansas
change to legal status of AfricanAmericans?
 1954 – Supreme Court ruled in Brown that segregated
schools were inherently unequal.
 Considered a landmark case that reversed Plessy v. Ferguson.
What happened in Little Rock,
Arkansas in 1957?
 9 African-American students admitted to Central High
School
 Mob of angry whites and Arkansas National Guard tried to
prevent nine students from entering school
 To enforce federal court’s ruling, President Eisenhower sent
federal troops to little Rock to protect nine students
When did the Civil Rights
movement begin moving toward
direct action and civil
disobedience?
 Arrest of Rosa Parks in 1955 led African-Americans to
boycott bus system in Montgomery, Alabama
 Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. played a key role in leading
the boycott and helped establish civil disobedience as a tactic
for ending segregation and discrimination.
What is civil disobedience?
 Combines nonviolent teachings of Jesus with ideas of
disobeying unjust laws that came from Henry David Thoreau
and Mohandes Ghandi.
 Designed to win the support of general public to bring out
change
 Early phase of Civil Rights Movement characterized by civil
disobedience and included
 Sit-ins in North Carolina
 Freedom rides in Alabama and Mississippi
 Protests in Birmingham, Alabama
What was the March on
Washington?
 August 1963 – over 250,000 people gathered at Lincoln
Memorial to ask Congress for Civil rights legislation
 Highlight is Dr. King’s “I Have a Dream” speech
When did Congress pass civil rights
legislation?
 President Lyndon Johnson used public support, tribute to
JFK and political expertise to pass Civil Rights Act of 1964
through Congress
 Outlawed discrimination in employment, hotels, restaurants
and other public places
 Empowered attorney general to bring violators of the law to
court
 1965 –Voting Rights Act – protected every citizen’s right to
vote and authorized federal government to oversee voter
registration and elections
 Civil Rights Act of 1968 – outlawed discrimination in the sale
and rental of housing
What happened to the Civil Rights
movement in the late 1960s?
 Civil rights leaders like Martin Luther King, Jr. found
themselves isolated from the increased militancy of the
African- American community
 Watts, California riot in 1965 and many others followed
throughout the U.S.
What was the Nation of Islam?
 African-American organization led by Elijah Muhammad
 Sometimes referred to as Black Muslims
 Members of Nation of Islam called for African-Americans to
gain self-respect by staying sober and morally pure
 Preached racial separation
 Believed in maintaining separation and seizing freedom by
any means necessary, including violence
 Malcolm X was a spokesperson but left in 1964, and was
assassinated in 1965
Who were the Black Panthers?
 1966 – organized to control the streets and ghettos
 Late 60s – became an organization of revolutionaries who
advocated using violence to draw attention to conditions in
the ghettos
When was Martin Luther King, Jr.
assassinated?
 Was planning a Poor People’s March on Washington
 Assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee on April 4, 1968
 His assassination touched off rioting in over 150 cities
 Rioting in D.C. reached such intensity that U.S. troops were
called in to protect the U.S. Capitol Building for the first
time since the Civil War
What happened to the Civil Rights
Movement after King’s
assassination?
 By 1970s more than 15 years had passed since Supreme Court had ruled





for desegregation
Few schools were actually desegregated
Court-ordered busing was used to achieve racial integration
Busing became a controversial issue
Legal barriers were lifted but several generations of racial segregation
barred many Americans from enjoying the opportunities
1978 – Bakke Supreme Court decision states schools cannot give
preference to members of any group on the basis of ethnic or racial
identity alone
 Also ruled that racial factors could be taken into account in school’s overall
admissions policy
What is Indochina?
 Part of southeast Asia and includes Vietnam, Cambodia, and
Laos
 Indochina people fought Chinese domination for over 1,000
yrs
 Colonized by the French in the late nineteenth century
 In 1919, Vietnamese leader, Ho Chi Minh, tried to appeal
personally to Woodrow Wilson in Paris to support selfdetermination for the Vietnamese people
What happened in the FrenchIndochina War?
 During WWII, Vietnam under Japanese control
 After Japan’s defeat by Allies, French tried to re- colonize
Indochina
 Met with heavy resistance from Vietnamese Nationalist
movement led by now communist, Ho Chi Minh
 French crumbled under Vietminh guerilla tactics
 Despite massive aid from U.S., French forces eventually
surrendered to the Vietnamese in 1954 at Dienbienphu
What was the Geneva Conference
 1954, U.S., France, Britain, Red China, the Soviet Union,
and nine other nations met to discuss Indochina’s future
 Agreed to divide Vietnam at the 17th parallel with
communists in control of North Vietnam and Vietnamese
supporters of the French in control of South Vietnam
 U.S. didn’t sign agreement
 Ho Chi Minh consented to agreement with promise to hold
election in 1956 to unify Vietnam
What happened in South Vietnam
after the Geneva Conference?
 With help from U.S., pro- Western government under Ngo
Dinh Diem was put in power in South Vietnam
 The 1956 election to unify Vietnam canceled primarily b/c
the communists under Ho Chi Minh seemed certain to win
 After the canceled election, loyalist to Ho Chi Minh in South
Vietnam organized the National Liberation Front (NLF)
launching a civil war in South Vietnam
 These forces were known as the Vietcong and fought against
Diem’s forces known as ARVN
What was Dwight Eisenhower’s
policy toward Vietnam?
 Eisenhower, believing in the domino theory, concerned if
communists took control of Indochina rest of Asia would fall
under communist control
 Therefore, Eisenhower decided to support Diem with
American military hardware, military advisers, and covert
operations
What was John Kennedy’s policy
toward South Vietnam?
 Despite American help, South Vietnamese government under
Diem ruled with little support from South Vietnamese
people
 To protect Diem’s government, Kennedy increased aid to
South Vietnam
 From 1961 to 1963, the number of American advisers in
Vietnam increased from 600 to 17,000
What happened to Ngo Dinh Diem?
 1963, uprising by Buddhist monks against Diem’s repressive
government convinced Kennedy administration to drop
support for Diem
 November 1963, Diem was assassinated in a military coup
encouraged by U.S. government
 Diem’s assassination led to great political instability in South
Vietnam and ARVN forces looked like they would lose to
communist forces
What was Lyndon Johnson’s policy
toward South Vietnam?
 August 1964, President Johnson announced an American
destroyer on patrol in the Gulf of Tonkin was attacked by
North Vietnamese torpedo boats
 Congress then passed resolutions giving him a “blank check”
to stop communist aggression in Vietnam
 Early 1965, potential defeat of South Vietnamese forces led
Johnson’s decision to have U.S forces assume responsibility of
fighting the war
 He began an escalation of U.S. troops reaching over 550,000
by 1967
What happened after Johnson
began escalating the war?
 U.S. faced a stalemate in South Vietnam for a variety of
reasons including Vietnam’s geography aided Vietcong
guerrillas
 The stalemate, combined with much of American public
believing U.S. troops should not be in Vietnam, caused great
division in U.S.
 “Hawks” believed in massive force to win the war
 “ Doves” believed Johnson should end the war by pulling
U.S. troops out
What was the Tet Offensive?
 Vietcong in Jan. 1968 launched attack on U.S. forces in
South Vietnam
 During offensive, Vietcong forces occupied 5 major cities, 36
provincial capitals, 64 district capitals, and U.S. embassy
 U.S. forces eventually stopped attack, but perception that
conflict was far from over caused major news organizations,
and general public, to turn against Johnson’s policies in
Vietnam
What happened in the election of
1968?
 Facing antiwar challenge from Eugene McCarthy and Robert
Kennedy, Johnson withdrew from presidential race
 After Kennedy’s assassination, Johnson’s vice president
Hubert Humphrey was nominated by Democrats to run
against Republican candidate Richard Nixon
 Humphrey, hurt by Johnson’s unpopular handling of the war,
lost to Nixon who had secret peace plan
What was Richard Nixon’s policy
toward South Vietnam?
 1969, Nixon begins Vietnamization ( gradual withdrawal of
U.S. troops while South Vietnamese forces prepared to fight
for themselves)
 After invasions in Cambodia (1970), Laos (1971), and
massive bombing failed to force communist surrender, Nixon
pulls all U.S. troops out of Vietnam in 1973
What happened after U.S. forces
were pulled out of Vietnam?
 1975, communist forces took control of South Vietnam
What are the lessons of Vietnam?
 1995, Robert McNamara, Secretary of Defense under
Kennedy and Johnson, wrote U.S. government made many
mistakes in Vietnam
 Government officials didn’t understand Vietnamese people,
underestimated the power of nationalism to motivate
Vietnamese forces
 Admitted he exaggerated of the importance of the struggle in
Vietnam, misled Congress and public, failed to recognize
ineffectiveness of high-tech equipment to defeat committed
guerillas
 Wrote U.S. should never commit troops anywhere unless
there are clear attainable goals, and troops fighting with
public and congressional support
What did John Kennedy bring to
the presidency?
 1st Catholic elected president
 Youngest person elected president
 His election brought a sense of youthful idealism and
optimistic program to pursue national opportunities in civil
rights, economics, international relations, and space
exploration
 Called his program New Frontier
What happened in the Bay of Pigs?
 April 1961, 3 months into Kennedy presidency, U.S.
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sponsored Cuban invasion by anti-communists Cuban
refugees to overthrow pro- Soviet leader Fidel Castro
U.S. believed it would prompt Cuban people to rise up and
overthrow Castro
Was a disaster
Cubans didn’t rise up and invasion was crushed
Although Kennedy publicly accepted responsibility, he
privately blamed intelligence agencies and military for
providing him with unreliable info
What was the Cuban missile crisis?
 October 1962, U.S. spy planes discovered missiles in Cuba
 Although several of Kennedy’s advisers suggested invasion, he
decided to blockade Cuba and keep Russian ships from
delivering warheads
 Soviet Union agreed to withdraw missiles after Kennedy
agreed not to invade Cuba and to remove missiles from
Turkey
When was the Berlin Wall built?
 After Soviet Union threatened to cut off Western access to
Berlin, Kennedy mobilized U.S. troops and gathered
National Guard to federal service
 This show of force caused Soviets to build wall separating
communist sector of Berlin from free sector
How did Kennedy’s assassination
affect the United States?
 Traumatized and shocked by the assassination, Americans also
had to deal with unanswered questions behind the
assassination
 As tribute to Kennedy, Johnson was able to push some of
Kennedy’s programs through Congress
What was the Great Society?
 Was Johnson’s program to bring “ abundance and liberty” to
all Americans
 Used his political expertise to push massive amounts of
legislation to Congress
 Landmark legislation under Johnson: civil rights, health care,
education, environment, housing, immigration, and funding
for cultural endeavors
 Great Society characterized primarily by “War on Poverty”
Why was the Warren Court
important?
 Chief Justice Earl Warren, served 1954-69, presided over
Supreme Court provided nation fundamental changes in
constitutional law
 Warren Court in several landmark cases made Bill of Rights
to apply to actions of state and local governments
 Shifting emphasis of constitutional law from property rights
to personal rights, Warren court responsible for revolution in
individual rights characterized 60’s
What caused the protests and
rebellions of the 1960s?
 Seeds of protest of 60’s planted in the 50’s, included
rebellious activities by youth groups, feminists, racial
minorities, and ethnic minorities
 Numerous groups demanded equal rights and fair treatment
long denied to women and minorities
 Youth protests characterized by New Left which wanted a
more democratic society and counterculture rebelled against
materialism, racism, and violence in modern world
What characterized Richard
Nixon’s domestic policies?
 Significant expansion of liberal programs usually denounced
by conservative Republicans
 Extended government benefits for health and welfare,
transformed affirmative action that set specific goals and
timetables for hiring minorities, created Environmental
Protection Agency, and program of revenue sharing with
state governments
 Faced economic problems- high inflation, beginning of large
trade deficit, ordered a wage and price freeze
How did U.S. foreign policy change
under Richard Nixon?
 Henry Kissinger, Nixon’s top foreign policy advisor, viewed
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world as multipolar, rather than bipolar
Nixon then adopted foreign policy based on trilateralism,
recognition non- communist world had 3 major powers:
U.S., Western Europe, and Japan
Wanting better relations with China, Nixon visited in 1972
and began process of formally recognizing communist
government completed in 1979
Hoped to create better relations with Soviet Union, began
policy of relaxing tension with Soviets known as détente
Under Nixon, U.S. signed treaty with Soviets limiting size of
nuclear arsenals
What was the Watergate break-in?
 After several yrs of wire-tapping and other illegal activities,
Nixon administration member caught breaking in
Democratic Party headquarters in Watergate office building
in Washington, D.C.
 Cover- up launched to protect Nixon’s presidency knowing a
full investigation of the break-in would uncover several
members of Nixon administration and Nixon reelection
organization involved in illegal activities
How were the illegal activities
associated with the Watergate
break –in uncovered?
 After newspaper reporters uncovered damaging info, U.S.
Senate and special prosecutor appointed by Nixon’s attorney
general began investigating break-in
 Led to court orders for Nixon to turn over tape recordings
of conversations he made about break-ins
 Nixon’s decision not to comply led to a constitutional crisis
Why did Nixon resign the
presidency?
 Nixon fired the special prosecutor after he refused to drop
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his demand to hear Watergate tapes
Prompted impeachment proceedings against Nixon, House
Judiciary Committee voted for three articles of impeachment
Charges against him included obstruction of justice, defying
court orders, and abuse of power
Supreme Court ordered tape recordings be turned over, they
revealed Nixon part of the cover-up
Nixon tried to use CIA to stop FBI investigation of Watergate
break-in
Fearing he lost support in Congress, Nixon resigned
presidency and later pardoned by President Ford
Why did Arabs boycott the sale of
oil to the United States?
 After U.S. supported Israel in Arab- Israeli conflicts, Arab
nations boycotted sale of oil b/c of Yom Kippur War of 1973
 Boycott led to long lines at gas stations and high prices for gas
in the U.S.
What economic problems plagued
the United States in the 1970s?
 Due to Arab oil boycott and end of Vietnam war, U.S. hit
with new economic problem- high inflation with sluggish
economic growth known as stagflation
 U.S. faced growing budget deficits, trade deficit, decline in
real wages
Why was Jimmy Carter elected in
1976?
 Running as Washington outsider, Carter elected president
promising honesty in government
 Beat incumbent president Gerald Ford who was hurt by
pardoning Nixon, rising gas prices, deficits, and stagflation
What characterized Jimmy Carter’s
domestic policies?
 Carter declared need for national energy policy the moral
equivalent of war, only able to pass water-down energy
legislation through Congress
 Wasn’t able to deal with stagflation, high interests rates, and
growing deficits
 Popularity began to wane in his final presidency year
What characterized Jimmy Carter’s
foreign policies?
 At beginning Carter tried to make human rights instead of
anti-communism the center of foreign policy
 Invasion of Afghanistan by Soviets led to end to détente and
resumption to Cold War tensions
 Carter’s foreign policy achievements included Panama Canal
Treaty, U.S. agreed to relinquish control of Panama Canal to
Panama, Camp David Accords, Carter negotiated peace
agreement between Egypt and Israel
What happened in the Iranian
hostage crisis?
 After decades of U.S. support, shah of Iran overthrown in
Islamic fundamentalist revolution
 1979, Iranian students took American hostages in U.S.
embassy in Iran and demanded U.S. return the shah to Iran
 Hostage crisis continued throughout 1980, along with
nation’s economic problems, hurt Carter’s chance of
reelection
 After 444 days in captivity, hostages released day of Reagan’s
inauguration