Transcript Chapter 28

The Crisis of Imperial Order
1900-1929
Origins of Crisis in Europe & Middle East
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Ottoman Empire in
decline
losing provinces closest to
Europe
“Young Turks” forced
constitution, advocated
centralized rule &
“Turkification” of
minorities
Carried out modernization
Causes of World War I
• Military StrategyInflexible
mobilization plans
• Alliances
• Imperialism
• Nationalism
The “Great War” & Russian Revolutions
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Tensions increasing for years
All entered war confident it would
be over quickly
German victory seemed assured,
but faltered-formed an unbroken
line of trenches (the Western
Front) from North Sea to
Switzerland
Troops ordered to charge across
open fields-cut down by machinegun fire
Four Year Stalemate
Home Front & War Economy
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governments imposed controls
Rationing & recruitment of Africans,
Indians, Chinese & women into
European labor force transformed
civilian life
German civilians paid high price-British
naval blockade
British & French forces overran
German/African colonies (except
Tanganyika)
Europeans requisitioned food,
imposed heavy taxes, forced Africans
to grow export crops & sell at low
prices, & recruited African men to
serve as soldiers & porters
U.S. businesses grew rich by selling
goods to Britain & France
Ottoman Empire at War
• Turks signed secret alliance w/
Germany
• unsuccessful against Russia
• deported Armenians (causing
deaths of hundred of
thousands), closed
Dardanelles Straits
• British tried to subvert Ottoman
Empire- promised emir
Hussein ibn Ali of Mecca a
kingdom to lead revolt against
Turks-he did in 1916
• Balfour Declaration suggested
British would “view with favor”
the establishment of Jewish
national homeland in Palestine
Double Revolution in Russia, 1917
• By late 1916, large but weak
Russian army experienced
numerous defeats
• civilian economy in collapse
• cities faced shortages of
fuel & food
• March 1917, Tsar Nicholas
overthrown-replaced by
Provisional Government
• November 6, 1917
Bolsheviks staged uprising
in Petrograd & overthrew
Provisional Government.
The End of War in Western Europe
1917–1918
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German resumed unrestricted submarine warfare
US joined war-April 1917
Germans broke through line-pushed within 40 miles of Paris
Allies counterattacked-August 1918
Germans retreated; armistice signed-November 11
Peace & Dislocation in Europe
1919–1929
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8-10 million died in war
Millions of refugees, many
fled to France & US
US passed immigration
laws-closed doors to east
& south Europeans
Influenza epidemic of
1918–1919 spread
around the world, killed
20 million people
War caused serious
environmental damage
Peace Treaties
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Three men dominated Paris
Peace Conference:
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U.S. President Wilson
British PM David Lloyd George
French Premier Georges
Clemenceau
Treaty of Versailles
humiliated Germany-left
largely intact & potentially
most powerful nation in
Europe
Austro-Hungarian Empire fell
apart
New countries created in
lands lost by Russia,
Germany, & Austria-Hungary
Russian Civil War & New Economic Policy
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In Russia, Allied intervention/ civil
war extended fighting for 3 years
By 1922, Soviet republic of Ukraine &
Russia merged- created USSR
In 1921, Lenin’s New Economic
Policy helped restore productionrelaxed government controls, allowed
return of market economics
Regarded as temporary-would be
superseded as USSR built modern,
socialist, industrial economy by
extracting resources from peasants
to pay for industrialization
Lenin died in January 1924-power
struggle ensued between Leon
Trotsky & Joseph Stalin
Stalin filled bureaucracy with his
supporters, expelled Trotsky-forced
him to flee the country
An Ephemeral Peace
• 1920s were decade of
dissatisfaction among people
whose hopes had been raised
by rhetoric of war & dashed by
its outcome
• In 1923, French occupation of
the Ruhr & severe inflation
brought Germany to the brink
of civil war
• Currency reform & French
withdrawal from the Ruhr
marked the beginning of a
period of peace & economic
growth beginning in 1924
China & Japan: Contrasting Destinies
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China:
rapid population growth
unfavorable ratio of population to arable land
avaricious landlords & tax collectors
devastating floods of Yellow River
Chinese society divided among many groups: landowners, wealthy merchants, &
foreigners-luxurious lives aroused resentment of educated, young, urban Chinese
Japan:
few natural resources-little arable land
earthquakes, tsunamis
Industrialization/economic growth aggravated social tensions
Japanese prosperity depended on foreign trade
more vulnerable than China to swings in world economy
Revolution & War, 1900–1918
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China’s defeat/humiliation by international force in Boxer affair of 1900 led
many to conclude that China needed a revolution to overthrow Qingmodernize the country
Regional army unit mutinied in 1911-Sun Yat-sen’s Revolutionary Alliance
formed assembly-elected Sun as president of China
To avoid civil war, presidency turned over to powerful general Yuan Shikairejected democracy- ruled as autocrat
Japanese joined Allied side in World War I-benefited from economic boom
as demand for their products rose
Japan used war as opportunity to conquer German colonies in N. Pacific &
on Chinese coast- further extended influence into China
Forced Chinese government to accede to many conditions presented in
document called the Twenty-One Demands
Chinese Warlords & Guomindang,
1919–1929
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At Paris Peace Conference, great powers allowed Japan to retain control
over seized German enclaves in China, sparking protests in Beijing (May 4,
1919) & other parts of China
China’s regional generals—warlords—supported their armies through
plunder & arbitrary taxation-China grew poorer, only treaty ports prospered
Sun Yat-sen tried to make comeback in Canton in1920s by reorganizing his
Guomindang party along Leninist lines-welcomed members of newly
created Chinese Communist Party
Sun’s successor Chiang Kai-shek crushed regional warlords in 1927
Chiang split with/decimated Communist Party- embarked on ambitious plan
of top-down industrial modernization
Chiang’s government staffed by corrupt opportunists, not by competent
administrators: China remained mired in poverty
New Middle East: Mandate System
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Instead of independence, former
German colonies & Ottoman
territories given to great powers as
mandates
Class C Mandates ruled as
colonies, while Class B Mandates
ruled under League of Nations
supervision
Arab-speaking territories of former
Ottoman Empire were Class A
Mandates-lead Arabs to believe
they had been promised
independence
Britain took control of Palestine,
Iraq, & Trans-Jordan
France took control of Syria &
Lebanon
Rise of Modern Turkey
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At end of war, Ottoman Empire at
point of collapse- French, British,
Italian, & Greek forces occupying
Constantinople & parts of Anatolia
In 1919 Mustafa Kemal formed
nationalist governmentreconquered Anatolia & area
around Constantinople in 1922
He was outspoken modernizerdeclared Turkey a secular
republic; introduced European
laws; replaced Arabic alphabet w/
Latin; attempted to westernize
Turkish family, roles of women, &
even Turkish clothing & headgear
Reforms spread quickly in urban
areas-encountered strong
resistance in countryside-Islamic
traditions remained strong
Arab Lands & Question of Palestine
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Among Arab people, the thinly disguised colonialism of Mandate System set off
protests and rebellions.
At the same time, Middle Eastern society underwent significant changes: population
grew by 50% from 1914-1939, major cities doubled in size, & urban merchant class
adopted western ideas, customs, & lifestyles
The Maghrib (Algeria, Tunisia, & Morocco) dominated by French army & by French
settlers, who owned the best lands & monopolized government jobs & businesses
Arabs & Berbers remained poor & suffered from discrimination
British allowed Iraq to become independent under King Faisal (leader of the Arab
revolt)-maintained a significant military & economic influence
France sent thousands of troops to crush nationalist uprisings in Lebanon & Syria.
Britain declared Egypt independent in 1922- retained control through alliance w/ King
Farouk
In Palestine Mandate, British tried to limit wave of Jewish immigration that began in
1920-only succeeded in alienating both Jews & Arabs
Society, Culture, & Technology in
Industrialized World
Class and Gender
• Class distinctions faded after war-role of aristocracy (many of whom had
died in battle) declined-displays of wealth came to be regarded as
unpatriotic
• Expanded role of government during & after war led to increase in numbers
of white-collar workers
• Working class did not expand-new machinery & new ways of organizing
work made it possible to increase production without expanding labor force
• In 1920s, women enjoyed more personal freedoms than ever before
• Women won right to vote in some countries between 1915-1934
Revolution in Sciences
• The discovery of subatomic particles, quanta, Einstein’s theory of
relativity, & discovery that light is made up of either waves or
particles undermined the certainties of Newtonian physics & offered
potential of unlocking new & dangerous sources of energy
• Innovations in social sciences challenged Victorian morality, middleclass values, & notions of western superiority.
• The psychology of Sigmund Freud & sociology of Emile Durkheim
introduced notions of cultural relativism
• After the experiences of war, called into question the West’s faith in
reason & progress
New Technologies of Modernity
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European & American public fascinated with new technologies like the airplane and
lionized the early aviators: Amelia Earhart, Richard Byrd, & especially Charles
Lindbergh.
Electricity began to transform home life-commercial radio stations brought news,
sports, soap operas, and advertising to homes throughout North America.
Film spread explosively in the 1920s. The early film industry of the silent film era was
marked by diversity, with films being made in Japan, India, Turkey, Egypt, and
Hollywood in the 1920s. The introduction of the talking picture in the United States in
1921, combined with the tremendous size of the American market, marked the
beginning of the era of Hollywood’s domination of film and its role in the diffusion of
American culture.
Health and hygiene were also part of the cult of modernity. Advances in medicine,
sewage treatment systems, indoor plumbing, and the increased use of soap and
home appliances contributed to declines in infant mortality and improvements in
health and life expectancy.
Technology and the Environment
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The skyscraper and the automobile transformed the urban environment.
Skyscrapers with load-bearing steel frames and passenger elevators were
built in American cities. European cities restricted the height of buildings,
but European architects led the way in designing simple, easily constructed,
inexpensive, functional buildings in what came to be known as the
International Style.
Mass-produced automobiles replaced horses in the city streets and led to
the construction of far-flung suburban areas like those of Los Angeles. On
farms, gasoline-powered tractors began replacing horses in the 1920s,
while dams and canals were used to generate electricity and to irrigate dry
land.
Conclusion:
Postwar Realignments
• France and Britain emerged from the war economically weakened.
Russia was left in civil war and revolution. The Austro-Hungarian
and Ottoman Empires were divided into smaller, weaker nations.
• Japan and the United States came out of the war in a more
strengthened position than before.
Conclusion
Postwar Promise
• The fall of the Ottoman Empire generated hope among Turks,
Arabs, and Jewish immigrants of sovereign nation status.
• French and British mandates thwarted those aspirations.
Conclusion
Postwar Society
• Women remained in the workforce and demanded voting rights
while governments took on more responsibility for citizens’ health
and well-being.
• Science and technology brought entertainment, electricity, better
health, and faster transportation to western nations.
Impact: Social
• Families altered by the
departure of so many men
• With the death or absence
of the primary wage earner
women were forced into
the workforce in
unprecedented numbers
• Industry needed to replace
the lost laborers sent to
war; aided the struggle for
voting rights for women
Impact: Social
• One of the distinguishing features of the war was its totality
• All aspects of the societies fighting were affected by the conflict,
even countries not in war zone
Impact: Political
• Expansion of government power & responsibilities in Britain, France,
the United States, and the Dominions of the British Empire
• New government ministries & powers created
• New taxes levied, & laws enacted, all designed to bolster war effort,
many have lasted to today
Demographic
Impact
•more dead & wounded
•more physical destruction
•millions of refugees many fled
to France & United States
•immigration laws closed
doors to eastern & southern
Europeans
•Influenza epidemic, killed 30
million people
•serious damage to the
environment; hastened buildup of mines, factories, &
railroads
Geographic Impact: Territorial Changes
• tremendous changes to
eastern Europe
• Empires shattered; new
nations established
• Dangerous power vacuum
created between Germany &
Soviet Russia
Global Impact
• Destroyed/reduced some empires & diminished strength of others
• New nations emerged
• Shifted economic resources & cultural influences away from Europe
• Reduced European global influence; encouraged nations, notably the
United States, to challenge Europe's international leadership
Global Impact
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Bolsheviks seized power in 1917
Ottoman & Austro-Hungarian Empires disintegrated
Germany replaced Kaiser's government with Weimar Republic
New nations such as Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia emerged
European Allies owed over $11 billion to U.S.
U.S. transformed from net debtor to net creditor
New York replaced London as world's financial center
Allies faced increasing demands for self-rule from their colonies
They no longer controlled sufficient military & economic resources to
shape world affairs as before
Global Legacy
• “Wilsonianism”
• Emphasized national selfdetermination
• League of Nations meant to
curb nationalist excesses
and aggression
• Collective security would
enable nations to participate
in new world order of peace
& prosperity
• influenced statecraft of future
generations
• continued to shape the
international history of
twentieth century
Global Legacy
• League of Nations failed to
maintain peace when
aggressive nations—
notably Communist Russia,
Fascist Italy, Nazi
Germany, and Imperial
Japan—later challenged
the Versailles peace
• These revisionist powers
rejected democracy and
capitalism and challenged
the status quo