Transcript FCHS James K. Polk, the Mexican War, and the Death - fchs

James K. Polk, the Decline of
the Whigs, and Acceleration
Towards War, 1845 - 1849
Who were the Whigs?

 The Whigs were born as a party of opposition –
ostensibly, a party of opposition against Andrew
Jackson.
 Why the Whigs opposed Jackson varied, though,
from region to region. In this sense, the party was
always divided, and friction was omnipresent.
 In general, however, the Whigs were a party of
national unity first and foremost. All of the most
articulate leaders of the Whig Party were advocates
of national unity, and all were devoted to the
preservation of the Union.
Daniel Webster
One of the so-called Great
Triumvirate, Webster was a New
Englander with uncommon
oratorical skill. He advocated for
internal improvements to bring the
nation together through
transportation, communication,
and trade.
Horace Mann
Horace Mann was devoted above
all else to the assimilation of
immigrants into the national fold.
He was the strongest advocate of
the public schools in the 19th
Century. The common school
movement of the 1840s which he
supported was an attempt to teach
the values of citizenship to
children.
Abraham Lincoln
Before he was the first Republican
President of the United States of
America, Abraham Lincoln was a
Whig Congressman from Illinois.
Lincoln’s views against the
promotion of slavery evolved over
time; he was always, however, a
strong proponent of internal
improvements and Union.
Henry Clay
Henry Clay’s “American System”
was the clearest expression of the
Whig Party’s Platform, if it had
one. Although there were many
sectional differences between the
Whigs, most concurred with Clay’s
plans, at least in broad strokes.
The Whig Ideology

 The Whigs articulated a patient, far-sighted vision
for America.
 They supported a high tariff on imported goods, in
order to promote and expand domestic industries.
 Even Whigs in the South often voted in favor of the
higher tariffs, hoping that expanding industry in the
Southern States would promote an alternative to the
single crop, slave labor based plantation system.
The Bank of the United States
The Whig Party consistently supported the Bank of the United States. They wanted
for the Bank to regulate lending rates and provide stability to the currency of the
nation. Lower rates would encourage expansion and growth; when contraction of
the economy was necessary, they could manipulate the rates accordingly.
Economic Paternalism

 The Whigs believed
that the National Bank
should actively manage
aspects of the United
States’ economy. Their
support for internal
improvements was
motivated by the desire
to unify the nation’s
economy by promoting
trade.
 Harbor Improvements
 River Navigation
 Canals
 Railroads
 Highways
Internal Improvements, Travel and Trade
By making transportation less burdensome, the Whigs believed that
they would inevitably promote trade and help to unify the nation both
economically and socially. Interdependence in the economic realm
would help to broker longstanding political and social bonds.
Whigs and “Manifest Destiny”
The Whigs recognized the potential of “Manifest Destiny” to divide the nation.
Accordingly, the party crafted a land policy which acknowledged the need to settle
the West, but attempted to curb the nation’s appetite for expansion. They
encouraged higher prices for land, for example, in order to raise revenue, pay for
internal improvements, and slow the rapid expansion of the nation.
Whig Pacifism

 The Whig Party was keenly opposed to violence in
all forms, including expansionist imperialism.
 Whigs spoke out against Andrew Jackson’s refusal to
uphold the Supreme Court’s decision in Worcester V.
Georgia.
 They opposed the Mexican-American War and the
imperialist Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo.
 They viewed James K. Polk’s “Fifty-Four Forty or
Fight!” campaign slogan as jingoist posturing.
Whigs and the Executive
Power of the President

 The Whigs were a party born of opposition to
President Andrew Jackson, and it should not be
surprising that they were jealous of Presidential
usurpation of power.
 Only two Whigs were ever elected President; both
men died in office, and neither was an “issueoriented” leader. William Henry Harrison was a war
hero from the War of 1812; he died after a month in
office from pneumonia. Zachery Taylor, a hero of
the Mexican-American War, died after a year in
power.
Whigs and the Executive
Power of the President

To quote Whig President
William Henry Harrison:
“It is preposterous that a
though could for a moment
be entertained that the
President, placed at the
capital, in the center of the
country, could understand
the wants and wishes of the
people better than their own
immediate representatives.”
The Whigs Hatred for “Old
Hickory” – Andrew Jackson

 Whigs despised “King
Andrew” and their ideal
President was his opposite:
 A one-term President
 No “Spoils System,” or
patronage.
 Little use of the veto power
of the executive.
 Deference to the Cabinet on
important issues for the
nation.
The Surprising Rise to
Power of James K. Polk

How “Young Hickory” became the first dark horse candidate to
win the Presidency and wreck the Whig Party in four short years.
James Knox Polk

 When the Election of 1844 came along, Polk was angling
for the Vice Presidency, no the head of the ticket.
 He had been the floor leader in the House of
Representatives under Andrew Jackson.
 He has served as Speaker of the House in the 1830s.
 In 1839, he had quit the Congress to pursue a career in
local government, and quickly risen to the rank of
Governor of Tennessee.
 Although out of politics altogether in 1844, he was not out
of the public mind, and his candidacy was viable.
The Annexation of Texas

 In 1844, the big litmus test for the Presidency was
whether or not a candidate was in favor of the annexation
of Texas. The leading candidate for the Democrats in
1844, former President Martin Van Buren, had already
articulated an anti-expansionist stance on Texas.
 When neither Lewis Cass nor James Buchanan proved
capable of securing the votes needed for nomination, the
Democrats sought a compromise candidate, and James K.
Polk – who was outspokenly in favor of the annexation of
Texas – was their choice.
The Election of 1844:
Polk vs. Clay

 Henry Clay was the standard bearer of the Whig Party in
1844. The second resolution of the Whig Party platform in
the 1844 election summarized Clay’s American System. The
party sought,
“a well-regulated currency; a tariff for revenue to defray the
necessary expenses off the government, and discriminating
with special reference to the protection of the domestic labor of
the country; the distribution of the proceeds from the sales of
public lands; a single term for the Presidency; a reform of
executive usurpations, and generally such an administration of
the affairs of the country as shall impart to every branch of the
public service the greatest practical efficiency, controlled by a
well-regulated, wise economy.”
Henry Clay’s Positions

 He sought to revive the issue of the Bank of the
United States, which Andrew Jackson had already
effectively squashed in the 1830s.
 He tried to re-articulate his position on the
annexation of Texas to appear more flexible;
however, he could not match Polk’s transparent zeal
for acquiring the nation.
 Both men were slaveholders, but many in the South
viewed Clay’s opposition to the annexation of
slaveholding Texas as an anti-slavery position.
Texas was Annexed by John Tyler in 1845
After James K. Polk won the election of 1845, Virginian and pro-slavery President John
Tyler encouraged a joint resolution for the annexation of Texas to be passed by the lame
duck Congress. The motion carried, and Texas joined the Union as a slave state.
Victory for Polk
James K. Polk’s narrow victory
over Henry Clay in the Election of
1844 was coupled with a
Democratic majority in both houses
of Congress, and Polk would
interpret these results as a strong
public mandate for his political
agenda. Polk was not bound to any
faction of his own party, either; he
had been a compromise candidate
an owed allegiance to no one!
Goals of Polk’s Administration

 Even in his inaugural address, Polk articulated goals related
to “Manifest Destiny.”
 He strongly supported the “re-union” with Texas which the
Congress had passed by joint resolution. (A treaty would still
need to be ratified by the Senate.) Said Polk, who identified an
independent Texas as a rival to the United States if Westward
Expansion were to continue: “None can fail to see the danger
to our safety and future peace if Texas remains an
independent state or becomes an ally or dependency of some
foreign nation more powerful than herself.”
 He continued to posture and threaten war with England over
the Oregon Territory.
 He openly planned to wrest California from Mexico – by
purchase if possible, but by force if required.
“Young Hickory”
In the image of Andrew Jackson, James
K. Polk expanded the powers of the
Presidency in the name of the
“people.” Said Polk:
“the people…have commanded the
President…to execute their will…
The President represents in the
executive department the whole
people of the United States, as
each member of the legislative
department represents portions of
them.”
As President, he would act
independently of his Cabinet, and
attempt to personally intervene to
manipulate Congress just as he had
when he served as Speaker of the
House.
Reducing the Tariff
James Polk played a decisive role in
convincing Senators to support the
Walker Tariff of 1846, which reduced
the tariff significantly. Polk did not
believe that a high tariff was required
in order to raise revenue – he also did
not believe that internal
improvements or government
sponsored legislation was a priority.
About the only increase in the
government’s influence would come
via sponsorship of the military.
 “To say that the people of
their Government are
incompetent or not to be
trusted with the custody of
their own money in their
own Treasury, provided by
themselves, but must rely on
the presidents, cashiers, and
stockholders of banking
corporations, not appointed
by them nor responsible to
them, would be to concede
that they are not capable of
self-government.”
The Bank of the
United States
Defeated
Polk resolved to create an
independent US Treasury, and to
keep private banking interests on
the sidelines. The Whig’s dream of
a Bank of the United States was
defeated under his leadership.
“Manifest Destiny”

 John O’Sullivan was the
author and Democratic
strategist who coined
the phrase “Manifest
Destiny” in the 1840s to
describe the United
States divine right to
rule over North
America, from sea to
shining sea.
“Manifest Destiny”
Under Polk, the promotion of westward expansion by peaceful means was given the
blessing of the United States government. The expansion of the Oregon Trail, the
Mormons settlement of the Great Salt Lake region, the Donner Party, the California
Trail, and the gold rush 1848 all occurred, not coincidentally, during his term in office.
James K. Polk’s Foreign
Policy, 1845 - 1849

The Fulfillment of the United States “Manifest Destiny” – By Any
Means Necessary and With Unparalleled Success
 Even in his inaugural
address, Polk considers the
annexation as a chance to
claim greater glory for his
Presidency. Knowing that
Mexico views Texas as a
renegade province and that
Mexico had never formally
acknowledged the
independence of the nation,
he fairly gloats, “Texas was
an independent power,
owing no allegiance to
Mexico and constituting no
part of her territory or
rightful sovereignty and
jurisdiction.”
Texas
Posturing for War

 Using the excuse that Mexico had broken off
diplomatic ties with the United States, Polk sent the
US Army to the border region of Texas and Mexico –
between the Nueces and the Rio Grande Rivers.
 Meanwhile, Polk continued the jingoistic rhetoric he
had maintained with England over the Oregon
Territory:
 “Fifty-Four Forty or Fight!”
Van Buren and Polk

 “The administration which is charged with definite
action in respect to [Texas and Oregon] and which
gives satisfaction to its constituents…and at the same
[time] preserves the peace of the country without
detriment to its honor will have reason to regard itself
truly fortunate.” – Martin Van Buren
 Polk, on the other hand, openly demanded Texas and
California and the Oregon Territory in its entirety –
and was willing to risk a two front war – with Mexico
to the South and England in the Pacific Northwest –
simultaneously – in order to secure them.
Negotiating for
Oregon
As the situation in Texas escalated
and the possibility of actual
military conflict with Mexico
appeared more and more eminent,
Polk opted to negotiate a deal with
England for the Oregon Country.
In 1846, he dispatched Secretary of
State James Buchanan to negotiate
a treaty with England to divide the
territory in half. Americans would
claim the land to the south of the
49th Parallel; the English would
claim the territory north of the line.
Resolving the dispute with
England allowed Polk and his
administration to focus exclusively
upon the conflict with Mexico.
Attempts to Acquire
California by
Diplomacy Fail
Polk sent the diplomat John Slidell to
Mexico in an effort to purchase
California for the United States, but
met with no results. The desire to
acquire California, along with the
hard stance on establishing the
border between Mexico and the
United States at the Rio Grande River
– not the Nueces – led to an
escalation of the conflict in Mexico.
Many believe Polk provoke the war
willfully in order to seize Mexico’s
territory in the Southwest.
Posturing for War With
Mexico

 In Polk’s diaries, he records:
 “Gen’l Taylor shall be instructe that the crossing of the
Del Norte by a Mexican Army in force shall be regarded
as an act of war on her part, and that in that event, Gen’l
Taylor to be ordered, if he shall deem it advisable, not to
wait to be attacked but to attack her army first.”
 He also authorized a blockade of all Mexican ports on the
Gulf of Mexico if practicable.
 These order are essentially an act of war – and recall that
the declaration of war IS NOT a power of the President.
“American Blood on
American Soil”

 When the inevitable provocation occurred – and it is
much disputed among historians whether the shots
fired were indeed in American territory – Polk
claimed that American blood had been spilt on
American soil and that war was justified.
 One of the few Whigs to speak out against the war
was Abraham Lincoln, who declared that he would
want evidence to indicate the very spot where
American blood had been shed. The speech was not
popular; indeed, it may have cost him re-election.
Ending the War

 Even before the war began, Americans had articulated
stances against the acquisition of territory in the West as a
result of imperialist aggression.
 David Wilmot, in his famed Wilmot Proviso, suggested
that slavery should be banned from any territory gained
via conquest.
 Since many Northern Whigs viewed the MexicanAmerican conflict as a war of aggression for the purpose
of expanding slavery, they were put in a difficult situation
by the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo. In order to end the
war, they had to affirm the expansionist agenda of
President Polk.
The Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo
The Mexican Cession, including all of the land once claimed by Texas, the New
Mexico territory and California, was taken by the United States from Mexico for
approximately $20 Million. How this land would change the balance of power in
the Union – towards slavery or towards free labor – proved to be too large a
question to resolve except by war.
Expanding Slavery to
the West?

 The Whig party tended to oppose the annexation of Texas
and the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo on the grounds that
the expansion of territory to the South of the Missouri
Compromise line would inevitably result in the creation
of more slave states.
 Polk left office in 1849, but his legacy continued well into
the 1850s, as the issue of popular sovereignty redefined
the terms of the debate over slavery. The west was
rapidly being settled – particularly post Gold Rush of
1848.
 When the Compromise of 1850 was created, California
became a free state, but the possibility of slavery in the
West actually expanded due to popular sovereignty.
The Compromise of
1850
California entered the Union as a
free state.
The Slave Trade in Washington,
D.C. was ended.
Popular Sovereignty would be used
to determine the issue of slavery in
the new Western territories.
The Fugitive Slave Law, which
required northerners to capture
and return runaway slaves, was
strengthened.
Zachary Taylor

 By 1848, the Whig party
was a divided political
faction. By nominating
war hero Zachary Taylor
and opting not to run on a
formal platform in the
Election of 1848, the party
managed to win the
Presidency in 1848.
Sadly, though, like the
Whig William Henry
Harrison before him,
Taylor would die in
office.
The Decline and Fall of
the Whig Party

 Because of the divide over slavery, the Whig Party split
into pro-slavery and increasingly abolitionist sections by
the 1850s.
 The Compromise of 1850 – eventually supported by
Millard Fillmore and supported by Northern Whigs –
divided the party.
 The publication of Uncle Tom’s Cabin by Harriett Beecher
Stowe further complicated the debate.
 Then in 1854, the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which Stephen
Douglass, a Democrat, sponsored lead to the collapse of
the Party over the issue of the expansion of slavery into
the West.
James K. Polk and the
Destruction of the Whigs

 Polk discredited the American System and portrayed
it as an elitist trap.
 The tariff was lowered from 32% to 25% - promoting
free trade and benefiting the nation economically.
 The Bank of the United States was put permanently
away, and an independent treasury was now
considered the most democratic manner of
managing the public revenues.
 “Manifest Destiny” was accomplished with rapid
speed, and could not be undone.
And a Post Script…

 The argument might just as easily be put forth that
the dizzying success of James K. Polk’s four years in
office also led to the division and subsequent death
of the Democratic Party as well. Although in name
the party would persist through the Civil War and
beyond, factions would emerge in the North and
South which divided the party completely, and it
would not come back together until after the loss of
625, 000 soldiers.
The Republican Party

 By 1856, the Republican Party was formed,
combining former Whigs with anti-immigrant
Know-Nothing Party members and Free Soilers who
sought to stop the advance of slavery into the
territories.
 John Fremont was the first Republican to run for the
Presidency as a Whig, but the 1860 nominee was
much more successful: Abraham Lincoln.
The Death of Polk
After leaving office in 1849 Polk contracted
cholera and died of dehydration induced by
bowel dysfunction. Although he envisioned
and executed one of the most successful foreign
policies every in an American president’s
administration, he is poorly remembered in
history, and he was divisive enough that he
cannot be called “well loved.”