Transcript TAKS biology review

TAKS biology review
1. Many times the answers are in
the question itself:
• Underline key words
• Ignore extra information that doesn’t help
B
Reading graphs
& charts: the
answer is there!
total volume: 2.3 kg
most precise balance that can hold 2.3 kg:
W
read question,
evaluate graph,
each statement
graph shows heart rate variation
according to temperature
“well” is ambiguous, not what graph shows
not what graph shows
graph shows doubling during temperature change
graph does not show mutation
has to do with water being
stored & not lost:
DESERT
we organize the
world by
“complexity”
tissues are made
of cells, etc.
Alive
Not Alive
Organisms
Organ systems
Organs
Tissues
Cells
Organelles
Molecules
Atoms
Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons
Which is more complex, a bacteria
or a frog?
“Complexity” in biology is talking about
number of organ systems, specialized
tissues.
Not about how hard it is to remember!!
the FROG is more complex (with more
organ systems) than a bacteria!
Cells & cell theory:
Cell Theory states:
• All living things are made of cells
• Cells are the basic unit of structure and
function in organisms.
• All cells come from pre-existing cells.
• Cells contain organelles with specialized
functions
Cell as a City: label with names & functions
• Cell as a
City!
General Cell Anatomy
Cell wall: made of cellulose
Membrane : controls entry & exit
Nucleus: instruction center
DNA: instructions
Endoplasmic Reticulum: hold
ribosomes that make protein
City wall: protects
Fence: controls entry & exit
City hall: instruction center
City records: instructions
Factories: hold machines to make
stuff
Ribosomes: make proteins
Machines: that make stuff
General Cell Anatomy
Vacuole:
stores
Membrane : controls entry & exit
Lysosome:
Nucleus: instruction center
Breaks down
DNA: instructions
& Recycles
Endoplasmic Reticulum: hold
Chloroplasts: solar
ribosomes that make protein
Vessicle: carrying
Ribosomes: make proteins
• Cell as
a City!
Warehouse
Recycling Ctr:
Breaks down
& Recycles
Factories: hold machines
to
Solar
power
plants
make stuff
Fence: controls entry & exit
City hall: instruction center
City records: instructions
Truck: carrying
Machines: that make stuff
Mitochondria: make energy
Power plants: make energy
Golgi: package and ship proteins
Post office: package and ship
Prokaryotic Cells
• Simple cellular
organization with no
nucleus or other
membrane-bound
organelles.
• Example: Bacteria
• Diseases caused by
bacteria: Cholera,
diphtheria, Dysentery,
Tetanus, MRSA, Strep
Throat, Tooth Decay.
Eukaryotic Cells
Domain: Eukarya
Found in 4
kingdoms
• Protista
• Fungi
• Plantae
• Animalia (Cell
Shown)
Ribosomes
Ribosomes: site
of protein
synthesis…
a.k.a. translation
Polypeptide chain
Ribosomes are Not
membrane-bound
Bacteria have them
Too!
What is unique to:
Animal Cells:
• Lysosomes – contain
digestive enzymes.
• Centrioles – used in
cellular division.
Plant Cells:
• Chloroplast – site of
photosynthesis
• Cell Wall – formed of
proteins and cellulose and
lies outside of the plasma
membrane
• Vacuole – huge storage
compartment for water and
starch
Questions for you to answer #1
1. What is a difference between prokaryotes
and eukaryotes?
A. Eukaryotes have a nuclear membrane
and therefore a nucleus.
B. Organelles are found only in
prokaryotes.
C. The cells of prokaryotes only contain
cytoplasm.
D. Prokaryotes contain an endoplasmic
reticulum.
Question 2
A disease not caused by bacteria
A.
B.
C.
D.
Tetanus
Strep Throat
Dysentery
HIV
Question 3
Match the function to the organelle:
Ribosome
A. Packaging
Mitochondria
B. Lipid Synthesis
Smooth ER
C. Protein Synthesis
Golgi Apparatus
D. Cellular Respiration
Membrane Structure: Phospholipid Bilayer
Glycoproteins play an
important role in cellular
recognition and immune
responses. They help
stabilize the membrane
structure.
Some proteins, called
peripheral proteins,
are stuck to the
surface of the
membrane.
Glycolipids act as
surface receptors and
stabilize the
membrane.
Some proteins completely penetrate
the phospholipid layer, allow
specific molecules through.
In’N’Out: No energy required:
Passive Transport – relies on thermal
energy of matter and the cell does not
work (No energy “ATP” used – High
Concentration to Low Concentration).
Four types:
• Diffusion (usually solutes)
• Facilitated Diffusion – membrane
enzyme carries the substance
• Osmosis – diffusion of WATER across a
semi-permeable membrane (usually
solvent due to solute concentration)
• Bulk flow – movement of fluids affected
by pressure.
ACTIVE transport: uses ATP
(energy)!
• endo
cytosis
• (to
inside)
• exo
cytosis
• (to
outside)
Active Transport: uses ATP to
move stuff through channels....
sodium potassium PUMP
Question 5
Which of the following is an example of
osmosis?
A. The movement of ions from an area of
high concentration to an area of lower
concentration.
B. The movement of ions from an area of low
concentration to an area of higher
concentration.
C. The movement of water from an area of
high concentration to an area of lower
concentration.
D. The movement of water from an area of
low concentration to an area of higher
concentration.
Water and
nutrients
(via the roots)
Photosynthesis
Sugar
(to rest of the
plant)
Sunlight
Carbon
dioxide gas
(through
stomata) Oxygen gas
(through
stomata)
6CO2 + 12H2O
Light
Chlorophyll
C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Photosynthesis Equation:
“follow the money”, I mean “carbon”
Photosynthesis – First Stage
Light Dependent
Reactions:
The captured light
energy is transferred
to electrons that
come from H2O and
O2 is the byproduct.
ATP is produced
Second Stage of
Photosynthesis:
Light Independent Reactions:
Energized electrons are
transferred to CO2 to form
glucose in the Calvin-Benson
Cycle.
Autotrophs use the energy from
the sun to make organic
compounds and are the basis
of all terrestrial and most
aquatic food chains.
Cellular Respiration
• Cells use OXYGEN to break down
SUGAR
• to make:
ATP
Cellular Respiration
Highly energized electrons stored temporarily
in glucose are removed (oxidation reactions)
in a stepwise fashion to maximize energy
captured at each step (and avoid blowing
things up).
All organisms must use energy and the
energy is in the form of ATP.
ATP
• like a chemical
battery
• it can store energy
• it can release
energy when last
P- bond is broken
Electrons
carried via
NADH
GLYCOLYSIS
The cytoplasm
Glucose
➙Pyruvate
Cristae
Electrons carried
by NADH and
FADH2
Mitochondrial
matrix
KREBS
CYCLE
Matrix of the
mitochondria
ELECTRON TRANSPORT
CHAIN AND OXIDATIVE
PHOSPHORYLATION
The inner membrane of the
mitochondria
Mitochondrion
ATP
ATP
ATP
Substrate-level
phosphorylation
Substrate-level
phosphorylation
Oxidative
phosphorylation
C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
6CO2 + 12H2O
Idea: “Respiration”
glucose
co2
34
ATP
Oxygen
What if there’s not enough oxygen?
• is there
another way
to make
ATP?
• Glycolysis
then....
• Fermentation!
Lactic Acid Fermentation
Pyruvate
Skeletal
muscle
Alcohol Fermentation
Pyruvate
Relationship between Photosynthesis and
Cellular Respiration
Question 7
What two products of photosynthesis are
reactants in cellular respiration?
A. Glucose and oxygen
B. Glucose and water
C. Oxygen and carbon dioxide
D. Sunlight and oxygen
Question 9
Which stage of cellular respiration occurs
in all organisms under anaerobic
conditions?
A. Glycolysis
B. Krebs Cycle
C. Electron Transport Chain
D. Calvin Cycle
Question 10
What organelles are the locations of the
processes of photosynthesis and
cellular respiration?
A. Chloroplast and Ribosomes
B. Chloroplast and Golgi Apparatus
C. Chloroplast and Endoplasmic
Reticulum
D. Chloroplast and Mitochondria
nucleic acids
Structural differences between DNA and RNA
include:
DNA
RNA
Strands
Double
Single
Sugar
Deoxyribose
Ribose
Bases
Guanine
Guanine
Cytosine
Thymine
Adenine
Cytosine
Uracil
Adenine
DNA
DNA Replication
(Semiconservative)
• allows cells to pass
genetic information
on to offspring.
• Errors in the
process results in
mutations.
• Remember A – T
and G – C.
Mnemonic
The letter “C” fits into
The letter “G”…
like they are cuddling.
Question 11
The functional unit of both DNA and RNA
is the nucleotide. What comprises the
nucleotide?
A. Sugar, Protein, and a Base
B. Sugar, Phosphate, and a Base
C. Sugar, Protein, and a Ribosome
D. Sugar, Phosphate, and a Ribosome
Question 12
Which sequence of bases will pair with
the base sequence CTAGGATTC in a
DNA molecule?
A. GATCCTAAG
B. ATGTTGCCA
C. CTAGGATTC
D. GAATCCTAG
Protein Synthesis – 2 steps
Transcription – nucleus
DNA  mRNA
Translation – cytoplasm
mRNA  rRNA  tRNA  protein
DNA
mRNA
protein
trait
GENE to PROTEIN RELATIONSHIP:
3 bases = a codon = an amino acid
Functional
protein
This polypeptide
chain forms the other
part of the functional
protein.
Polypeptide chain
Amino acid
This polypeptide
chain forms one part
of the functional
protein.
Polypeptide chain
TAC on the
template
DNA strand
Protein synthesi
transcription and
translation
A triplet
codes for one
amino acid
START Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet STOP START Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet
5'
Gene
Transcription unit
STOP
3'
DNA
Gene
Three
nucleotides
make up a triplet
Nucleotide
In models of
nucleic acids,
nucleotides are
denoted by their
Transcription occurs in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.
DNA nucleotide sequence  mRNA
Steps:
1. Messenger (m)RNA is copied from DNA, by
unzipping a portion of the DNA helix that
corresponds to a gene using RNA polymerase.
2. Only one side of the DNA will be transcribed, and
nucleotides with the proper bases (A with U and C
with G) will be sequenced to build mRNA.
3. mRNA leaves the nucleus.
Translation – occurs in the cytoplasm with
ribosomes forming proteins
mRNA + rRNA + tRNA + amino acids = proteins
Steps:
1. mRNA attached to a ribosome
2. tRNA molecules pick up an amino
acid and carry them to the
ribosome.
3. tRNA anticodon and the mRNA
codon join together
4. As the amino acid chain lengthens
enzymes form peptide bonds
between amino acids.
5. The tRNA exit to locate a new
amino acid and this process
continues until the stop codon is
reached.
Question 15
DNA 
RNA 
Protein (= trait)
In the diagram above, what is the function of RNA?
A. Carry the set of instructions that replicates
another DNA molecule in the protein chain.
B. Carry the set of instructions that places amino
acids in the protein chain in the correct order.
C. Carry the set of instructions that places
phosphate molecules in the protein chain.
D. Carry the set of instructions that bonds hydrogen
to the protein chain
Question 16
What is the process in which mRNA is
coded from the DNA and in what part of
an eukaryotic cell does it occur?
A. Transcription, Nucleus
B. Transcription, Cytoplasm
C. Translation, Nucleus
D. Translation, Cytoplasm
Question 18
The DNA sequence, GATTACACG,
would code which of the following
mRNA sequence?
A. CTAATGTGC
B. CTUUTGTGC
C. CATATGTGC
D. CUAAUGUGC
Question 19
What process is
being shown in
the diagram to the
left?
A. Transcription
B. Translation
C. Replication
D. Selection
Mutations
Any random, permanent change in the DNA molecule.
Many are harmful, some have no effect, and some
benefit the organism. Nature selects those mutations
that are beneficial or adaptive in organisms to help
shape the course of evolution.
DNA sequence: GCATACCA
Types of mutations:
Deletion – lost base  GC*TACCA
Duplication – extra copies  GCATCATACCA
Inversion – backwards  CGATACCA
Cladistics & homology
Homology means “similarities”
• deciding how closely things are related =
cladistics
comparative anatomy
comparative embryology
Taxonomy: naming things
according to cladistics
old ways: 5 Kingdom vs 6 Kingdom
5 Kingdoms: Monera (prokaryotic), Protista (eukaryotic),
Fungi* (eukaryotic), Plantae* (eukaryotic), Animalia
older
(eukaryotic)
6Kingdoms: Eubacteria (prokaryotic), Archaebacteria
(prokaryotic), Protista (eukaryotic), Fungi*
(eukaryotic), Plantae* (eukaryotic), Animalia
old
(eukaryotic)
* Cell Wall Present (Chitin in Fungi and Cellulose in
Plantae)
What is the difference: Monera has been split into the
Eubacteria and Archaebacteria.
What no Viruses?
New taxonomy: 3 domains
based on cell type
Domain
Bacteria
Domain
Archaea
Common ancestor
Domain
Eukarya
Eukaryotic Domain
• Protists
• Fungi
• Plants
• Animals
Animals: invertebrates
• Porifera (sponges)
• Cnidaria (stingers)
• Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
• Nematoda (roundworms)
• Annelida (earthworms & leeches)
• Arthropoda (joined legs)
• Mollusca (snails, octopus)
• Echidnoderms (starfish)
Animals: chordates
do have a spinal cord
• Fish (bony & cartilage skeletons)
cartilage = sharks & rays GILLS for respiratory system
• Amphibian
lungs & skin for respiratory system
• Reptiles
can live in dry environment
• Birds (Aves)
have 4 chambered heart
• Mammals
4 chambered heart, feed young milk, give birth to live young
Rhinovirus
More than 100
rhinoviruses have been
identified. They are the
most common cause of
colds.
HIV
The human
immuno- deficiency
virus (HIV) causes
AIDS.
Papillomavirus
This virus causes the
formation of warts in
humans.
Herpesvirus
Nearly 100
herpesviruses are
known. Types found in
humans include those
that cause cold sores,
chickenpox, shingles,
and genital herpes.
VIRUSES
Lyssavirus
This bullet-shaped
virus causes
rabies.
Influenzavirus
This virus causes
influenza in humans.
Rapid mutation has
resulted in many strains.
Hepatitis viruses
The viruses
responsible for
hepatitis A, B and C.
Filovirus
This newly emerged
group of viruses, include
the dangerous Marburg
and Ebola.
Viruses
• Viruses are either a segment of DNA or RNA with a
protein coat and are acellular. (Does not meet the life
processes… it is not alive… no cells)
• Infection pattern of viruses is either lytic or lysogenic.
Lysogenic pattern has a dormancy stage.
• Vaccinations is the most effective defense against
viral infections. Antibiotics CANNOT treat viral
infections.
• Viral Diseases: AIDS, Chickenpox, Common Cold,
Hepatitis, Flu, Measles, Mumps, Polio, Rabies,
Smallpox, Warts, Avian Flu, and West Nile Virus.
• Viruses that infect bacteria are Bacteriophage.
Lytic viruses are like
Terrorists; they
Destroy the cell as
They replicate by the
Thousands and leave.
Virus Life Cycle
Lysogenic viruses
Are like sleeper cells;
They hang out and
Replicate invisibly
Do vaccines work on viruses?
• Vaccines are a piece of protein from
the virus coat, or a weaker or
empty virus, in a shot that the doctor
gives you.
• The bits train your immune system to
recognize and attack when they see that
protein or virus.
• But some viruses change proteins too
quickly for us to keep up… like colds, and
HIV
Question 21
How are viruses different from living
organisms?
A. Viruses have no DNA or RNA.
B. Viruses use host cells to
reproduce.
C. Viruses contain no proteins.
D. Viruses can be killed by
antibiotics.
Ecology
• Autotrophs or producers are organisms
that capture sunlight or other organic
molecules to form an organic
molecules. Photosynthesis. Examples:
plants, algae, and bacteria
• Heterotrophs or consumers are
organisms that rely on other organisms
for their energy(food). Examples:
Fungi, bacteria, animals.
Heterotrophs Relationship
• Herbivore – Animals that eat only plants
(Cows)
• Carnivore – Animals that eat only other
animals (Lions)
• Omnivore – Animals that eat both plants
and animals (Humans, Wolves, Bears)
• Detritivores – obtain energy from dead
organisms and organic waste.
(Earthworms and fungi)
• Decomposers – are detritivores that cause
decay. (Bacteria and fungi)
Trophic Pyramid: energy levels
Food Web:
Food web questions: the answer is
usually in the food web itself.
Mice eat both plants (grass, grain, berries)
and meat (grasshoppers)
the details give you the answer!
Energy and Matter in the Ecosystem
Matter is recycled through the ecosystem,
where energy is lost between the trophic
levels.
90% of energy is lost between each trophic level!
• Food Chain – shows direct relationships
PlantsGrasshopperBlue Jay
Producer Primary Consumer Secondary Consumer (3 trophic levels)
• Food Web – interrelationships within an
ecosystem between producers,
consumers, and decomposers.
Symbiosis Relatioships
Symbiosis is a close relationship between two
organisms that are different species.
• Commensalism – one organism benefits and the
other does not benefit nor is harmed. Ex:Clown
Fish and Sea Anemone (Finding Nemo)
• Mutualism – both species benefit. Ex: Lichens
(which are fungi and algae)
• Parasitism – one organism lives directly on other
organism. Ex: Tapeworm and Humans
• Predation – one organism captures and eating
another. Ex: Gazelle and Lion
Biogeochemical Cycles
Water Cycle – Evaporation and
Transpiration, Condensation, Precipitation,
and Runoff
Carbon Cycle – Photosynthesis/Cell
Respiration
Nitrogen Cycle – Nitrogen fixation,
Nitrification, Assimilation, and
Denitrification
Human Systems
Integumentary System
Structures: Skin, Hair, and Nails
Function: Protects the body from injury,
defense against pathogens, regulate body
temperature, and prevents the body from
drying out.
Skeletal System
Structures: Bones, joints
Function: Provide protection to internal organs and work
with muscles for movement.
Tendons attach muscles to bone. Ligaments connect bone
to bone and limit the movement of bones.
Joints include Ball and socket(hip), pivot(neck),
hinge(fingers), gliding(wrist), and saddle(thumb only).
Circulatory System
Structures: Heart, Blood, and Blood Vessels.
Heart – 4 chambers, atrium(2) receives blood and
ventricles(2) pump blood
Blood – composed of red blood cells, white blood cells,
platelets
Blood Vessels – arteries, veins, and capillaries
Function: connects all organs in the body and transports
material throughout the body.
Pulmonary – Heart to Lungs & Systemic – Heart to Body
The Heart:
4 Chambers = high efficiency
• Atria:
– Entrance
• Ventricle:
– Exit Chamber
– Power Pumper
Respiratory System
Structures: Diaphragm, Lungs, Pharynx, Trachea,
Bronchi, and Alveoli
Function: Works with the circulatory system to
transport oxygen to the cells of the body for
cellular respiration and the removal of carbon
dioxide.
Pathway of air: Pharynx Larynx
TracheaBronchi Bronchioles Alveoli
Exchange occurs between the alveoli and
capillaries
Destination: Lungs!!
• It’s all about
surface
area!
• Your lungs
have
enough
surface
area to
cover a
tennis
court!
Digestive System
Structures and Pathway: Mouth, Esophagus,
Stomach, Small Intestines, Large Intestines, and
Rectum. Accessory Organs: Liver, Pancreas,
and Salivary Glands.
Function: To break down large organic molecules
in food to usable smaller molecules.
Steps: Ingestion  Digestion  Absorption 
Elimination
Excretory System
Structure: Kidney, Ureters, Bladder, and
Urethra
Function: The removal (excretion) of water
soluble NITROGENOUS waste in blood
from chemical activities in cells including
ammonia from metabolism of proteins.
Two Steps: Filtration and Reabsorption
Nervous System
Structures: Neurons, brain, and spinal cord.
Function: Controls and coordinates functions throughout
the body. Uses both chemical and electrical signals.
Electrical impulse travels: DendriteCell Body Axon
(neurotransmitter)  Dendrite
Neurotransmitters are chemical/protein messengers
Central Nervous System – Brain and Spinal Cord
Peripheral Nervous System - Nerves
Immune System
Function: To protect the body from disease
causing agents (pathogens).
Nonspecific defenses: Skin, Inflammatory
response, histamine, tears, and increase in
temperature.
White Blood Cells – 3 types – Neutrophils,
Macrophages, and Killer T Cells
Endocrine System
Structure: Glands and Hormones
Function: Regulate the activity of the body using
hormones.
Endocrine glands produce hormones and are
secrete directly into the blood or fluid around
cells.
Gland and Hormone pairs:
Adrenal–adrenaline, Ovaries-estrogen,
Pancreas–insulin, and Testes–testerone
Reproductive System
Function: Reproduction of offspring
Male Reproductive System: Testes
produces sperm (haploid cell 23
chromosomes)
Female Reproductive System: Ovaries
produce ova (haploid cell 23
chromosomes), fallopian tube (fertilization
occurs) and uterus (embryo development).
Basic Organs of Plants
•
•
•
•
Roots – Anchorage and Absorption
Stems – Supports leaves
Leaves – Photosynthesis
Flowers – Reproduction ( found only in
Angiosperms)
Nonvascular Plants
Nonvascular plants lack roots, stems, and
leaves.
Examples: Mosses, Liverworts, and
Hornworts
Vascular Plants
Vascular tissues are xylem and phloem. (much like
our vessels in our bodies) Xylem transports
water and minerals from the roots to the leaves
for photosynthesis. Phloem transports sap
(sugar and water) from the leaves to other areas
of the plants.
Vascular Plants include Gymnosperms (pine trees)
and Angiosperms (flowering plants).