Transcript What You Must Know to Pass the Regents Biology Exam

What You Must Know to Pass the
Regents Biology Exam
Written by:
The CCP Science Department
Unit One: Science and the Living
Environment
• Observation: What is seen or measured
• Inference: A conclusion based on
observation or evidence
• Hypothesis: An untested prediction (If,
then, because)
• Theory: A broad explanation of natural
events that is supported by strong
evidence.
Controlled Experiment
• Compare the results of an experiment
between two groups
1. Experimental group: Group being tested
2. Control group: Should be identical to the
experimental group in every way except
one; it does not receive the treatment
Placebo: A sugar pill or other fake treatment
Variables
• Independent: variable being tested;
always plotted on the X axis.
• Dependent: variable that is measured at
the end of the experiment; changes due to
the independent variable; plotted on the Y
axis
Characteristics of a Good
Experiment
• Can be repeated by anyone and get the same
results
• Has a large sample size/many test subjects
• Performed for longer period of time
• Tests only one variable
• Are peer reviewed
• Does NOT have to agree with the hypotheses
• Is objective; fair and unbiased
Try This:
• Design an experiment that tests the affect
of fertilizer on Begonia plants
• Remember the design an experiment
question will appear in section C of the
Living Environment Exam
Many plants can affect the growth of other plants near them. This can occur when one
plant produces a chemical that affects another plant.
Design an experiment to determine if a solution containing ground-up goldenrod
plants has an effect on the growth of radish seedlings. In your experimental design be
sure to:
• state a hypothesis to be tested [1]
• describe how the experimental group will be treated differently from the control group
[1]
• explain why the number of seedlings used for the experiment should be large [1]
• identify the type of data that will be collected [1]
• describe experimental results that would support your hypothesis [1]
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Unit Two: Characteristics of Living
Things
• All living things must maintain homeostasis.
• To maintain homeostasis organisms must carry
out the basic life functions
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Nutrition
Excretion
Transport
Respiration
Growth
Synthesis
Regulation
Homeostasis
• The ability to maintain a constant internal
environment despite environmental
change
• Failure to maintain homeostasis causes
disease or death.
• Metabolism- all life processes
• Metabolism requires water  Why?
– Because 
Metabolism = hydrolysis + dehydration
synthesis
Nutrition - Autotrophs
• Autotrophs – make their own food
• May carry out photosynthesis or
chemosynthesis.
• Ex. plants, alga, blue-green bacteria
Photosynthesis
• Takes radiant energy from the sun and
outs into the bonds of sugar molecules
• Occurs mostly in the chloroplasts of plant
cells
• CO2 + H2O  C6H12O6 + O2
Chloroplasts
•
•
•
•
•
Found in plants
Site of photosynthesis
Contain stroma (”jelly”), and thylakoid membranes
Photosynthesis has two main reactions; Light and Dark(Calvin cycle)
Do you remember where each rxn takes place?
Plants and Photosynthesis
• Plants have
stomates, small
holes in their leaves
and lenticels in their
stems that let them
exchange the gases
used in
photosynthesis.
• Guard cells open
and close the
stomates.
Cellular Respiration
• Organisms get energy by breaking the
bonds of sugar molecules.
• The released energy is used to make a
molecule of ATP, which gives organisms
their energy.
• C6H12O6 + O2  CO2 + H2O
• Occurs in the Mitochondria!
Respiration Con’t.
• Aerobic respiration = requires oxygen,
and yields more ATP (energy) per
molecule of sugar than anaerobic
respiration
• Anaerobic respiration = does NOT
require oxygen
• When humans are forced to get energy
from anaerobic respiration, we produce
lactic acid that damages muscles (burning
feeling after exercise)
Photosynthesis and Cellular
Respiration
• Photosynthesis and Cellular respiration
are opposite reactions!
• They are also important in cycling carbon,
oxygen, hydrogen and water through the
environment.
The Connection Between Photosynthesis & Cellular Respiration
mitochondrion
chloroplast
Transport
1. Diffusion
2. Active Transport
3. Osmosis
Diffusion
• Movement of
molecules from high
concentrations to low
concentrations
• Requires NO energy
• “Flow to the Low”
Active Transport
• Requires the use of ENERGY!!!!
• Moving molecules from a low concentration
to a higher concentration.
Osmosis
• The passage of water from a region of high
water concentration through a semipermeable membrane to a region of low
water concentration
Osmosis
The Effect of Osmosis on Cells
 When you put an animal or plant cell into a
liquid containing water one of three things will
happen.
1.Hypotonic solution:
(distilled water)
 If the medium surrounding the cell has a
higher water concentration than the cell (a
very dilute solution) the cell will gain water
by osmosis
 Water molecules are free to pass across
the cell membrane in both directions, but
more water will come into the cell than will
leave.
 The net (overall) result is that water enters
the cell. The cell is likely to swell up
2. Isotonic Solution
 If the medium is exactly the same water
concentration as the cell there will be no
net movement of water across the cell
membrane.
 Water crosses the cell membrane in both
directions, but the amount going in is the
same as the amount going out, so there is
no overall movement of water.
 The cell will stay the same size.
3.Hypertonic Solution (salt
water)
• If the medium has a lower concentration of
water than the cell (a very concentrated
solution) the cell will lose water by
osmosis.
• Again, water crosses the cell membrane in
both directions, but this time more water
leaves the cell than enters it.
• Therefore the cell will shrink.
Regulation
• Coordination and control of other life
functions
• Nervous and Endocrine Systems function
in regulation
Nervous System
1. A stimulus is a change in the environment
that you respond to.
2. A neuron is a nerve cell.
3. An impulse is the electrical signal carried by
the nerves.
4. Neurotransmitters are chemicals that carry
the impulse.
A neuron
dendrite
Axon terminal
Cell body
axon
Myelin sheath
nucleus
Endocrine
5. A hormone is a chemical signal created
by different glands in the body. Ex.
insulin, adrenaline, testosterone,
estrogen
6. Receptor molecules are proteins on the
surface of the cell membrane that
receive signals from the nervous and
endocrine system.
The Endocrine System
Chemistry
• The most common elements in living
things are Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen,
and Nitrogen (CHON)
• Organic compounds have carbon AND
hydrogen
• Organic molecules are larger than
inorganic molecules
Which of the following is an
Organic molecule?
1.
2.
3.
4.
H 2O
CO2
NO3
C6H12O6
There are four main organic
compounds
1.
2.
3.
4.
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic Acids
Carbohydrates
• Sugars and starches
• All carbohydrates are
made from simple
sugars and supply
ENERGY
Starch
glucose
Lipids
• Store energy and
include fats, oils, and
waxes
• They are made from
fatty acids and
glycerol
Proteins
• Are made from amino acids
• Proteins can act as hormones, and
enzymes
• Many body and cell structures are
composed of proteins
• It is the SHAPE of the proteins and how
they fit together that determines what
proteins can do
Protein Structure
Amino
acids
Specific jobs of proteins
•
•
•
•
•
Enzymes
Receptor molecules on cell membranes
Channels in cell membranes
Antibodies
Hormones
Enzymes
• Are catalysts- affect the rates of chemical
reactions
• Induced Fit Model – one type of enzyme fits
one type of molecule
• If the enzyme’s shape changes it no longer
works
Factors that affect enzyme
activity
• pH
• Temperature
• Concentration of substrate
Enzyme Activity
Reaction pathway
without enzyme
Reaction pathway
with enzyme
Activation energy
without enzyme
pH
• The ph scale measures from 0-14.
• It measures the strength of acids and
bases
• A low pH (0-6.9) indicates an acid
• A high pH (7.1-14) indicates a base
• 7 is neutral (water)
pH scale
base
neutral
acid
Cells
•
•
Cells are the basic unit of life.
All living things are made of cells.
Cell Theory
1. All living things are made of cells
2. Cells come from pre-existing cells
3. The cell is the basic unit of structure and
function
Plant
vs.
Cells
• Have a cell wall
• *May have
chloroplasts
• Have large vacuoles
• Form a cell plate
upon dividing
• Generally rectangular
in shape
Animal
•
•
•
•
Lack a cell wall
No chloroplasts
Small if present
Use centrioles to
divide (pinch in)
• Generally circular or
oval in shape
*Remember the onion cell does not have chloroplasts while
elodea cells do have chloroplasts
Organelles “little organs”
• Cell membrane- made of a lipids and
proteins
• It is selectively permeable
• Has hydrophilic and hydrophobic
components
• ALL CELLS HAVE A CELL MEMBRANE!
Cell Membrane
Outside
of cell
Carbohydrate
chains
Proteins
Cell
membrane
Inside
of cell
(cytoplasm)
Protein
channel
Lipid bilayer
Nucleus
• Contains the DNA
• Site of DNA replication
• Site of mRNA production
Mitochondria
• Site of cellular respiration
• ENERGY in the form of ATP
Ribosome
• Site of protein synthesis
• May be loose in the cytoplasm or
connected to the ER
Vacuole
• Storage
• Very large in plants
Golgi Apparatus
• Packaging of proteins for transport
Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Smooth or Rough (has ribosomes)
• Transport
Typical Cell
Ribosome bound
Nucleolus
Nucleus
Nuclear membrane
Free Ribosome
Cell membrane
Mitochondria
Smooth ER
Rough ER
Centrioles
Golgi Apparatus
Classification
• Organisms are classified mostly by
evolutionary history.
• Those with common ancestors are
grouped together
• Scientists use cladograms to represent
relationships
– This is useful in the study of evolution.
• Cladograms diagram evolutionary pathways
Cladograms
Appendages
Crab
Conical Shells
Barnacl
e
Gastropod
Crustaceans
Limpet
Crab
Barnacle
Limpet
Molted exoskeleton
Segmentation
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON
VISIBLE SIMILARITIES
CLADOGRAM
Tiny freeswimming larva
Linnaeus’s System of
Classification
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
Classification Con’t.
With the advent of modern genetics, Classification (Taxonomy)
has been revised. A category known as Domain has been added
which is larger than Kingdom.
The diagram shows the three
Domains 
Archaea
Bacteria
Eukaryota
Archaea & Bacteria are
prokaryotes while Eukaryota
includes all eukaryotes.
Classification Con’t.
• A scientific name is
made of an
organisms Genus
and species
• It is either italicized
or underlined; the
Genus is capitalized
the species is
lowercased
Ursus
maritimus
Unit Three: Homeostasis and the
Human Body
A. Organization
1. Cells are specialized into tissues
a. Tissues are groups of cells specialized to do
certain jobs
b. Specialization or differentiation occurs
because some genes in the nucleus are “turned
on”
Almost every cell has a complete set of genes,
but only those needed for that cells job are
active. So while a red blood cell has all the
genetic info to make a nerve cell, bone cell, skin
Organization Con’t
2. Tissues work together to form organs
(heart, lungs, kidneys)
3. Organs work together in organ systems
(digestive system, nervous system, etc.)
Levels of Organization
Organism Individual
living
thing
Groups of Tissues, organs,
Cells
Organ systems
Cells
Smallest
functional
unit of life
Groups of
Molecules atoms;
B. The Nervous System
•
•
Regulates your body by using
electrochemical nerve impulses
The brain has three main parts
1. Cerebrum – thinking, memory, etc.
2. Cerebellum- balance, muscle movements etc.
3. Medulla- breathing, heart rate etc.
•
The spinal cord controls reflexes and
brings impulses from the nerves to
the brain
The Brain
cerebrum – controls voluntary
behavior, memory, thinking, &
reasoning
cerebellum – coordinates muscles,
maintains balance
medulla oblongata – controls basic life
functions – breathing, heartbeat, blood
pressure & peristalsis
Reflex Arc = S.I.M.
• the action path involving a Sensory neuron,
an Interneuron in the spinal cord, & a Motor
neuron (SIM)
C. Endocrine System
• Uses hormones to regulate the body
• Slower than the nervous system, but has
longer lasting affects
• The pancreas makes insulin and
glucagon which control blood sugar
• Adrenal glands make adrenalin when the
body is under stress
• Testosterone (male), estrogen and
progesterone (female) are the sex
hormones
Hormone Levels are controlled by
Negative Feedback
 Insulin LOWERS blood sugar Levels
 Glucagon RAISES blood sugar levels
D. Transport/Circulatory System
• Moves material (water, nutrients, hormones,
wastes) through the body to the cells that
need them
• Red blood cells carry oxygen
• White blood cells fight disease
• Plasma is the fluid of the blood
• Platelets clot the blood
Blood Vessels
 Arteries – carry blood away from the
heart
 Capillaries- site of exchange of O2/CO2
 Veins- carry blood to the heart (contain
valves)
Blood Vessels
Artery
Vein
Capillary
endothelium
arteriole
venule
Connective
tissue
Connective
tissue
Smooth
muscle
endothelium
Smooth
muscle
endothelium
valve
E. Immune System
• Protects the body against pathogens
• Types of pathogens include viruses,
bacteria, and parasites
• White blood cells are the main
components of the immune system
• Different white blood cells have different
roles
• Antigens cause an immune response
• Antibodies are proteins made by white
blood cells that attack antigens
• Antibodies are SPECIFIC, and attack only
antigens that have the correct shape
Antigen binding
sites
Antigen
ANTIBODY
Vaccines
• A preparation of weakened or killed pathogens
• Stimulate antibody formation (active immunity)
• After antibodies recognize an antigen and
destroy it, “memory cells” are produced
• These cells remain in the blood stream
• They respond so quickly that the resulting
immune response can inactivate the disease
causing agents, and symptoms are prevented.
Blood types
• O is the universal donor
• AB is the universal receiver
Antibiotics
• Drugs that are used to stop infections by
bacteria (passive immunity)
• Antibiotics will NOT work against viruses
F. Digestive System
• Food is broken down so that it is small
enough to enter the body tissues/cells
• The digestive system is a one way
passage through the body that includes,
mouth, esophagus, stomach and
intestines
• Food is moved through the digestive
system by peristalsis
Peristalsis
esophagus
contraction
Bolus
relaxation
• Food is broken down mechanically
(chewing, churning) and chemically
(enzymes)
• The absorption of nutrients occurs in the
small intestine.
• The small intestine have villi (small
fingerlike projections that increase surface
area)
• Undigested food is eliminated as solid
waste- this is NOT excretion
Villi
small
intestine
villus
circular folds
epithelial
cells
villi
capillaries
lymph vessel
vein
artery
Prentice Hall Biology pg.983
G. Respiratory System
• Physical respiration (breathing) provides
oxygen needed for chemical respiration
(which releases energy from sugar)
• It also excretes the waste CO2 which is
produced from respiration
• The diaphragm is the muscle that allows
breathing to occur
• You breathe faster when CO2 builds up in
the blood (not when you need oxygen)
Alveoli
• Alveoli are very
important because it
is here that oxygen
enters the blood and
CO2 leaves
• The alveoli look like
microscopic sacs
surrounded by
capillaries
alveoli
bronchiole
capillary
H. Excretory System
• Removes metabolic waste from your body
– These wastes include; salt, water, urea, and
CO2.
• The lungs excrete CO2 and water and the
skin excretes sweat
• The kidneys filter waste from the blood
and reabsorb nutrients
• The liver filters toxins and dead read
blood cells from the blood
Nephrons
• The functional units of the Kidney
Bowmans capsule
Cortex
Medulla
capillaries
glomerulus
Ureter
To Bladder
Collecting duct
To ureter
Skeletal Muscle System
• Provides protection
and structure for the
body
• Also needed for
locomotion
Bones
• Provide support and protection and provide
leverage for movement
• The bone marrow produces blood cells
Muscles
•
•
Muscles only pull and thus must work in
pairs to move joints
There are three types of muscle
1. Cardiac
2. Skeletal
3. Smooth (visceral)
Tendons and Ligaments
• Tendons – connect muscle to bone
• Ligaments - connect bone to bone
Do you get it?
Which letter
represents a
• tendon?
• bone?
• ligament?
• muscle?
Interaction between systems
• Know how different systems of the body
work together to maintain homeostasis!!
• Examples:
• Nutrients from the digestive system are
transported to cells by the circulatory
system
• Wastes from respiration are removed by
the excretory system
Unit Four: Reproduction
• Asexual Reproduction
– Advantages: faster, easier
– Disadvantage: no variety; offspring same as
parent
• Sexual Reproduction
– Advantages: variety
– Disadvantage: more time, effort and risk
Mitosis
• Asexual
• One division  two identical, diploid (2n)
cells
• Chromosome number in daughter cells is the
same as the parent cell
• Large organisms use mitosis for growth and
healing
• Simple organisms use it to reproduce
Meiosis
• A part of sexual reproduction (produces sex cells
or gametes)
• One cell divided twice to make four DIFFERENT
cells
• All 4 cells are haploid (n) meaning they have
half the number of chromosomes found in the
parent cell
• Separate pairs of homologous chromosomes so
that offspring get one chromosome from each
pair from a different parent
• Produces 4 sperm cells in males
Fertilization
• Occurs in the fallopian tube
• A fertilized egg is called a zygote and has
the normal number of chromosomes (2n)
• The fetus develops in the uterus
• Cells divide without becoming larger
(cleavage)
• After a few days the cells begin to
differentiate- that is they start to form
different types of cells (nerve, skin, bone)
• At this stage the embryo is very vulnerable
to alcohol, drugs etc.
Unit 5: Genetics
• Humans have 46 chromosomes, 23
homologous pairs
• Chromosomes pairs carry alleles for the
same trait
• We all have two alleles for each gene- 1
from each parent, 1 on each member of
the homologous pair
• While genes
determine our traits,
the environment can
affect expression of
genes
• Each chromosome
has thousands of
genes
• Each gene codes for
a protein
DNA
• Is made of four bases
(A,T,G,C)
–
–
–
–
Adenine
Thymine
Guanine
Cytosine
Codons
• A three letter codon represents a specific
amino acid
• These amino acids are linked together to
form proteins (occurs in ribosomes)
• ATG - TTA - CAG - TTG - CGC
RNA
• Helps DNA by carrying the genetic code to
the ribosomes (mRNA)
• The ribosomes make the DNA with help of
tRNA molecules
• Contains Uracil instead of Thymine
Mutations
• Changes to DNA are called mutations
• Two types of mutations
– Chromosomal
– Point Mutations
• Mutations can only be passed on to
offspring if they occur in sex cells (sperm
or egg)
• All cells in the body contain the same
genes
Genetic Technology
• Selective Breeding
– Produces animals with
desired traits (disease
resistance, larger fruit,
more meat, etc.)
Genetic Engineering- Gene
Splicing
• A gene from one organism is
inserted into the genes of
another
• Enzymes are used to cut and
copy the DNA segments
• Bacteria are often used because
they have no nucleus protecting
their DNA, and they reproduce
quickly
Gene Splicing – You Must Know
• The gene to make human insulin was
inserted into bacteria.
• The bacteria can now make insulin that is
the same as human insulin
• The insulin is used by diabetics
Gene for human
growth hormone
Recombinant
DNA
Gene for human
growth hormone
Human Cell
Sticky ends
DNA
recombination
DNA
insertion
Bacterial Cell
Bacterial
chromosome
plasmid
Bacterial cell containing
gene for human growth
hormone
Karyotype
• Picture of your genes,
used to spot
abnormalities such as
Down Syndrome
Unit Six : Evolution
• Modern species
evolved from earlier
species and share a
common ancestor
• Charles Darwin
proposed that Natural
Selection is the
mechanism that
causes a species to
change
Natural Selection
1. Overproduction of Offspring; offspring
have variation
2. Competition for Limited Resources;
variations affect the outcome of
competition (Survival of the Fittest)
3. Survive
pass on genes
4. Variations that were beneficial are
passed on and become more common in
a population
• Organisms that are
better adapted to their
environment and are
able to reproduce
successfully are
considered “fit”
• Note: evolutionary
fitness has nothing to
do with physical
strength necessarily
• Evolution is driven by change in the
environment
• To evolve variations must exist BEFORE
the environment changes
• Variations exist primarily as a result of
sexual reproduction and mutation
• Species with more variation are better
able to survive environmental changes
Gradualism vs. Punctuated
Equilibrium
• Gradualism-the idea
that evolution occurs
slowly over time
• Punctuated
equilibrium –the idea
that evolution
happens in quick
bursts amongst
periods of no change
Speciation
• Creation of a new
species
• Usually requires
geographic isolation,
which eventually
results in reproductive
isolation
Evidence for Evolution
1. Fossils
2. Biochemistry
3. Anatomy (homologous structures)
(vestigial organs)
4. Embryology
5. Direct Observation
Unit Seven: Ecology
• ECOSYSTEM: made up of all living and
non-living things.
• BIOTIC FACTORS: living factors
• ABIOTIC FACTORS: non-living factors
• HABITAT: a specific environment that is a
species “home”
• POPULATION: all the organisms of a
species that live in the same area
• COMMUNITY: All the different
populations combined.
• BIOSPHERE: Everywhere there is life.
• COMPETITION: Struggle for resources
• LIMITING FACTORS: Factors in the
environment that limit the size of
populations.
• PREDATORS: Species that kill other
animals
• PREY: Organisms killed for food.
• CARRYING CAPACITY: The number of
organisms of any single species that an
ecosystem can support. Determined by
available energy, water, oxygen, and
minerals.
• NICHE: The “job” or role the species
plays. If two species try to occupy the
same niche competition occurs.
• FOOD CHAIN: Shows what eats what.
• AUTOTROPHS: producers, make own
food, base of food chains
• HETEROTROPHS: Eat other organisms
• HERBIVORES: Eat plants (consumer)
• CARNIVORES: Eat other animals
(consumer)
• OMNIVORES: Eat both plant and animals
(consumers)
• DECOMPOSERS: recycle materials that
can then be reused by producers.
[Bacteria & Fungi]
• SCAVENGERS: consumers that eat
dead organisms.
• PARASITES: attack other living
organisms (host) but rarely kills them.
• FOOD WEB: Show more complex
feeding relationships among producers,
consumers, and decomposers.
• ENERGY PYRAMID: Diagram that shows
the transfer of energy through a food chain
or web. Each block represents the
amount of energy that was obtained from
the organisms below it.
• BIODIVERSITY: Measurement of the
degree to which species vary within an
ecosystem. Strong connection between
biodiversity and the stability of an
ecosystem.
• ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION: changes
in an environment that make it more
suitable for another community.
• Rock goes to mosses with goes to grasses
which goes to trees and shrubs with goes
to a forest.
• Each stage is suitable for different
species.
• The Four NYS Required Laboratory
Activities
– 1.
– 2.
– 3.
– 4.
Making Connections
The Beaks of Finches
Diffusion through a Membrane
Relationships and Biodiversity
Making Connections
Key Points I
1. In order to find a hypothesis, one looks for patterns. For
example, we did not see a connection between pulse rate and
height, but we did see a connection between pulse rate and
exercise.
2. Graphs and data tables present data in a clear, organized way
that is easy to understand.
3. Pulse rate increases during exercise because the cells need to
be provided with more food and oxygen and more wastes are
produced which need to be transported to the lungs (CO2) and
the kidneys (urea).
4. Muscles become fatigued, tired, due to waste products
building up in them.
5. Organ systems interact in order to maintain homeostasis
Making Connections
Student
Tested
Pulse Rate
at Rest
Pulse Rate After
Exercising
1
70
97
2
75
106
3
84
120
4
60
91
5
78
Making Connections
Making Connections
P ul s e R a t e B e f or e & A f t e r E x e r c i s e
12 0
10 0
80
R a t e / M in u t e
60
Pulse Rat e ( Rest )
40
Pulse Rat e ( Exer cise)
20
0
1
2
3
S t ude n t s
4
5
The Beaks of Finches
If you see this diagram
on the final exam the
corresponding questions
will test your
knowledge and
experience with this lab
activity
Diffusion Through a Membrane
Red Onion place in Salt Water
Red Onion place in
Distilled Water
Diffusion Through a Membrane
• A student places an artificial cell, similar to the
one used in the laboratory activity Diffusion
Through a Membrane, in a beaker containing
water. The artificial cell contains starch and
sugar. A starch indicator is added to the water in
the beaker. Explain how the student will know if
the starch is able to diffuse out of the artificial
cell. [1]
Diffusion Through a Membrane
Diffusion Through a Membrane
• Allow 1 credit for explaining how the student will
know if the starch is able to diffuse out of the
artificial cell. Acceptable responses include but
are not limited to:
— If the starch diffuses out, the indicator solution
will turn black or blue-black.
— If the starch is able to diffuse out, the starch
indicator will change color.
Relationship & Biodiversity
Relationship & Biodiversity
Relationship & Biodiversity
• Using the codon chart in the previous slide
complete the table below.
DNA
TAC
GGG
TCA
CGA
GGT
ACA
TGC
mRNA
Amino
Acid
Remember the last codon usually codes for a “STOP”
ATC
Gel Electrophoresis Analysis
Restriction Enzymes are used to cut DNA into fragments of
various lengths
Botana curus
Species Z
The banding pattern for Botana curus & Species Z Match
The next Series of Slides will take you through practice regents
questions. GOOD LUCK
Here is a typical regents question.
This question tests your knowledge of diffusion & osmosis.
Can you answer the question?
See the next slide for the answer.
The cell contains more water [90%] than the beaker [85%].
Therefore water [osmosis} will move out of the cell into the beaker until
equilibrium is reached.
The cell contains glucose [5%] while the beaker contains none.
Therefore glucose will move {diffuse} out of the cell into the beaker until
equilibrium is reached.
Lastly, the cell contains starch [5%] while the beaker contains none. However the beaker
contains iodine [5%].
Therefore starch will move {diffuse} out of the cell into the beaker. The
iodine which is an indicator of polysaccharides will turn the
starch blue-black.
Here is a common diagram that illustrates Photosynthesis. Can you identify each
letter?
See the next slide for the answers.
A  Water (H2O)
B  Carbon dioxide (CO2)
C  Light Reaction (granum)
D  Dark Reaction (Calvin cycle) occurs in the stroma
E  Oxygen (O2)
F  Glucose (C6H12O6) carbohydrate
G 
Chloroplast
The next slide illustrates a typical reading comprehension question found on
the living environment exam. These are straight forward as long as you take
the time and read the questions carefully. I have highlighted in blue the trick
and then the answer for question 40.
Base your answers to questions 40 through 43 on the information below and on your
knowledge of biology.
A decade after the Exxon Valdez oil tanker spilled millions of gallons of crude
[oil] off Prince William Sound in Alaska, most of the fish and wildlife species that
were injured have not fully recovered.
Only two out of the 28 species, the river otter and the bald eagle, listed as
being injured from the 1989 spill are considered to be recovered said a new
report, which was released by a coalition of federal and Alaska agencies working
to help restore the oil spill region.
Eight species are considered to have made little or no progress toward recovery
since the spill, including killer whales, harbor seals, and common loons [a type of bird].
Several other species, including sea otters and Pacific herring, have made significant
progress toward recovery, but are still not at levels seen before the accident
the report said.
More than 10.8 million gallons of crude oil spilled into the water when the
tanker Exxon Valdez ran aground 25 miles south of Valdez on March 24, 1989.
The spill killed an estimated 250,000 seabirds, 2,800 sea otters,
300 harbor seals, 250 bald eagles, and up to 22 killer whales.
Billions of salmon and herring eggs, as well as tidal plants and animals, were
also smothered in oil.
40 Identify two species that appear to have been least affected by the oil spill. [1]
(1) _______________________________
(2) _______________________________
41 The oil spilled by the Exxon Valdez tanker is an example of a
(1) nonrenewable resource and is a source of energy
(2) renewable resource and is a source of ATP
(3) nonrenewable resource and synthesizes ATP
(4) renewable resource and is a fossil fuel
Here is a biotechnology question that illustrates Recombinant DNA. In this
case foreign DNA (human DNA for the production of insulin) is introduced
into a bacterial plasmid.
Restriction enzyme cuts DNA
Human DNA that codes for insulin.
New bacterial plasmid
This results in the creation of a bacterial plasmid that allows bacteria to
produce human insulin for the treatment of diabetes.
Here is another good question.
38. A mutation occurs in a cell. Which sequence best represents the correct order
of the events involved for this mutation to affect the traits expressed by this cell?
(1) a change in the sequence of DNA bases → joining amino acids in sequence →
appearance of characteristic
(2) joining amino acids in sequence → a change in the sequence of DNA bases →
appearance of characteristic
(3) appearance of characteristic →joining amino acids in sequence →a change in
the sequence of DNA bases
(4) a change in the sequence of DNA bases → appearance of characteristic →
joining amino acids in sequence
Answer  choice # 1
This is a good question to illustrate the term metabolism. Remember,
metabolism is ATP dependent.
27 Information concerning a metabolic activity is shown below.
enzyme
X
products + energy for metabolism
Substance X is most likely
(1) DNA
(2) oxygen
(3) ATP
(4) chlorophyll
Answer  # 3