Transcript INTRODUCTION - CONCEPT, THEORIES AND RESEARCH

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INSTRUCTOR:
DR. SITI NOR BINTI YAACOB
DEPT. OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT & FAMILY STUDIES
FACULTY OF HUMAN ECOLOGY
Tel.: 603-89467088/ 03-89467093/012-2841844
e-mail:
[email protected]/[email protected]
m
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COURSE SYNOPSIS
Processes of physical, cognitive, social and
emotional growth and development from
conception through adolescence. Emphasis
on the major aspects at each stage of
development. Processes and outcomes of
interaction between the child-adolescent
and the environment.
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COURSE OBJECTIVES
By the end of the course students will be able to:
• Identify ecological processes of physical, socioemotional and cognitive development of children
and adolescents.(C2)
• Explain the effects of genetic, environment, and
genetic-environment interactions influences on
children-adolescent development. (C4, A3, CS)
• Explain the effects of children-adolescent
interactions with the environment on childrenadolescent growth and development. (P3,
CTPS, TS)
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About the course
 Part One: Introduction - Concepts,
Theories & Research
 Part Two: Child Psychology
 Part Three: Adolescent psychology
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COURSE CONTENT – 5 UNITS
Unit 1:
Introduces major concepts, principles and
theories of child and adolescent
development. Unit 1 also covers various
alternative methods researchers use to
explore questions or obtain information on
child and adolescent development.
Unit 2:
Highlights the prenatal development of the
unborn child.
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COURSE CONTENT – 5 UNITS
Unit 3:
Postnatal Development – Birth & Infancy
Unit 4:
Covers physical, intellectual, language and socioemotional development of children (early – late
childhood).
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COURSE CONTENT – 5 UNITS
Unit 5:
Covers significant aspects of adolescent development
such as physical, cognitive, personality, moral and
vocational planning. Specific developmental
problems during adolescence are highlighted.
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LECTURE TOPICS
1.
2.
3.
4.
Introduction
Prenatal development
Postnatal development
Physical development
in children
5. Cognitive development
in children
6. Language development
in children
7. Socio-emotion and
values development in
children
8. Adolescents’ physical
development
9. Adolescents’ cognitive
development
10. Adolescents’ socioemotional development
11. Adolescents’ vocational
and career development
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Assessments
Assessment
%
Assignment 1 (Week 1 – 7)
Mid semester test
Assignment 2 (Lab)
10
20
1. Prenatal development report
2. Lab project for children
3. Lab project for adolescent
5
20
15
Final exam
30
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WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

Derived from Latin words: psyche & logos

Psyche = soul/emotions (feelings)
Logos = knowledge/field of studies
Broad definition:



Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and cognitive
processes. It describes thinking and behavior and looks at
the relationships between them (“the what”) and tries to
explain the causes for them (“the why”)
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DEFINITION OF CONCEPT
 What is Growth (Pertumbuhan)?
 What is Development
(Perkembangan)?
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GROWTH
 Growth is a quantitative process of change
 ex. change in weight/height – i.e. changes
in size and structure, physical and
mental aspects.
 Changes can be measured & assess - from
one stage to the other.
 Growth will reach its peak once a person
mature.
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DEFINITION
 “Growth is an individual development in
body size, for example changes in
muscles, bones, hair, skin & glands. [Karl E.
Garrison]
 “Growth is a change that can be
measured from one stage to the other, and
from time to time” [Atan Long]
 “Growth as an increment in a person
external attributes. For examples in terms
of size, height and body weight” [D.S
Wright & Ann Taylor]
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WHAT IS DEVELOPMENT?
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Development is change.
Child development is a scientific study of processes
of change and stability from conception through
adolescence.
It involves changes in physical, social, emotional
and intellectual functioning over time.
Changes include alterations in size, shape and
function. It can be either progressive or regressive.
Development occurs in the context of the
significant social environment of life process
(family, school, peer group, community).
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
The study of children is concerned with two
primary types of change over time:
 Quantitative change: refers to the easily
measurable and sometimes obvious
aspects of development (including
physical growth – height & weight,
vocabulary, frequency of communication &
years of education)
 Qualitative change: refers to variations
and modifications in functioning. It is a
change in kind, structure or organization.
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Behavioral change as a developmental
change
 Three general condition/criteria
 The change is orderly or sequential.
 The change results in a permanent
alteration of behavior.
 The change results in a new behavior or
mode of functioning that is more
advanced, adaptive or useful than prior
behaviors.
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Thus….Child Development is….
 A scientific study of understanding all
aspects of human constancy and change
from conception through adolescence
 A part of a larger discipline known as
developmental psychology or human
development, which includes all changes
experienced throughout the lifespan
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Developmental stages
 Prenatal
 Infancy (0-2 years) & Toddlerhood (2-3 years)
 Early childhood(3-6 years)
 Middle childhood (6-10 years)
 Adolescence (11-19 years)
 Early (11-14 years)
 Middle (15-17 years)
 Late (18-19 years)
 Adulthood(≥ 20 years)
 Early (20-30 years)
 Middle (40-50 years)
 Late (60 years and above)
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DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT
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Change & stability occur in various domains of the self.
These domains are intertwined – each affects the others.
3 main domains:
 Physical – growth of the body & brain, sensory
capacities, motor skills & health.
 Cognitive – change & stability in mental abilities
(learning, memory, language, thinking, moral
reasoning & creativity).
 Psychosocial - change & stability in personality,
emotional life & social relationships.
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Influences on Development:
 Factors that can influence development
are: Nature (sejadi)
 Genetic (Warisan/baka/genetik)
 Nurture (Asuhan)
 Environment (Persekitaran)
 Food intake (Pemakanan)
 Health (Kesihatan)
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Major Contextual Influences
 Normative Influences
 Normative age-graded influences/event, i..e.
biological or social
 Example = puberty or entry into formal schooling
 Normative history-graded event, i.e. cohort (a group
of people who share a similar experience)
 Example = living during the Great
Depression/Tsunami
 i.e. Atypical events, e.g. having a birth defect
 Non-normative Influences
 Individual events that impact the person
 Events can be traumatic or happy
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HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD PYCHOLOGY?
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Children of antiquity
Medieval times (6th – 15th centuries)
The Reformation (16th centuries)
Philosophies of the Enlightenment (17th
centuries)
Evolution (Darwinism) & Child Development
Birth of Scientific Methodology
Mental Testing Movement
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HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD PYCHOLOGY?

Medieval times (6th – 15th centuries)
 Infants/newborn are regarded as miniature, already
formed adult
 Age was unimportant in medieval custom
 No concrete theories on children’s uniqueness or
separate developmental periods
 There exist some awareness of the vulnerability of
children (child protection laws & special clinical
care)
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HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD PYCHOLOGY?

The Reformation (16th centuries)
 Belief on original sin
 Children were born evil and stubborn and
had to be civilized toward a destiny of virtue
and salvation
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HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD PYCHOLOGY?
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Philosophies of the Enlightenment (17th centuries)
 John Locke (1632-1704)
 British philosopher who introduced “tabula rasa”
 Children begin with “nothing at all”
 Environments shape them
 Children are viewed in “passive”, “mechanistic”
term
 Ideas on “nurture” (parents as rational tutors)
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HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD PYCHOLOGY?

Philosophies of the Enlightenment (17th centuries)
 Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
 Children as “organism” - active shapers of their own
destiny
 Ideas on “nature” – development determined by their
own innate nature
 Innate-goodness view
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HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD PYCHOLOGY?

Evolution (Darwinism) & Child Development

Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882)
 Theory of Evolution
 2 important & related concepts: natural selection &
survival of the fittest
 Emphasizes the adaptive value of physical
characteristics/surroundings/ environment and behavior
 Researchers were prompted to study all aspects of
children’s behavior
 The birth of “the science of child psychology” or child
study
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HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD PYCHOLOGY?

Birth of Scientific Methodology
 Baby Biographies
 Charles Darwin (1877)
 Emphasizes observations on own children
and relatives
 From rudimentary observations to
improved methods
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HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD PYCHOLOGY?
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Beginning of 20th century
 G. Stanley Hall pioneered the study of child
development
 Use questionnaire to study children
 Use scientific method
 Focus on adolescent development
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HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD PYCHOLOGY?

Mental Testing Movement
 Alfred Binet (1857-1911)
 Binet & Theodore Simon took a normative
approach, to find a way to identify children
with learning problems who needed to be
placed in special classes
 Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test - 1916
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An emerging consensus
 All domains are interrelated.
 Normal development includes a wide range of
individual differences.
 Children help to shape their own development and
influence others’ responses to them.
 Historical and cultural contexts strongly influence
development.
 Early experience is important, but children can be
remarkably resilient.
 Development in childhood is connected to
development throughout the rest of the lifespan.
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Theories in
Developmental Psychology
What is a theory?


A theory is a set of logically related
concepts or statements, which seeks
to describe and explain development
and predict what kinds of behavior
may occur under certain conditions.
 An orderly, integrated set of
statements that:
 Describes
 Explains
 Predicts
Hypotheses are tentative
explanations or
predictions that can be
tested by research.
Benefits:

Explain the meaning of
an event/facts

Able to relate these
facts
behavior
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Theories
 Psychoanalytic
 Psychosexual (S. Freud)
 Psychosocial (E. Erickson)
 Learning
 Behavioral Learning
 Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
 Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
 Social Learning (A. Bandura)
 Cognitive
 Cognitive Developmental Theory (J. Piaget)
 Socio-cultural (L. Vygotsky)
 Moral Development (Reasoning) (Kohlberg)
 Human Ecology System (U. Bronfenbrenner)
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Freud’s Three Parts of the Personality
Id
Ego
Superego
•Largest portion of the mind
•Unconscious, present at birth
•Source of biological needs & desires
•Conscious, rational part of mind
•Emerges in early infancy
•Redirects id impulses acceptably
•The conscience
•Develops from ages 3 to 6, from
interactions with caregivers
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Psychoanalytic
 Psychosexual (S. Freud)
 Psychosocial (E. Erickson)
* 8 stages of development
*Psychosexual stages
•Oral stage
•Anal stage
•Phallic
•Latency
•Genital
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Trust versus mistrust
Autonomy vs shame
Initiative vs guilt
Industry vs Inferiority
Identity vs Identity Confusion
Intimacy versus isolation
Generativity vs stagnation
Integrity vs despair
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Psychoanalytic
 Psychoanalytic theory proposes that morality
develops through humans' conflict between their
instinctual drives and the demands of society.
 Freud identified three parts of the personality that
become integrated during five stages
of development
 Id
 Ego
 Superego
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Personality Structure
superego
ego
ID
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Personality Structures
 ID (unconscious element)
 the largest portion  is the source of basic
biological needs and desires.
 EGO (semi-conscious element)
 the conscious  rational part of the personality,
emerges in early infancy to redirect the id’s
impulses so they are discharged in acceptable ways
 SUPEREGO (The conscious element that function
on the basis of morality).
 the conscience that develops between ages 3 and
6 through interactions with parents, who insist
that the child conform to the values of society.
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Freud Psychosexual stages:
 Oral stage [0- 1 year] –
 Mouth is the focus of stimulation &
interaction. Feeding & weaning are central
 Anal stage [1-3 year] –
 Anus as the focus of stimulation &
interaction. Elimination & toilet training is
central
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Freud Psychosexual stages:
 Phallic [3-6year]
 The genital is the focus of stimulation. Gender
role & moral development are central.
 Conflict between id & superego
 Children interested to know more different sexes,
babies etc.
 2 main conflict:
 Oedipus Conflict  son attracted to mother
 Electra Conflict  daughter attracted to father
 Penis envy
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Freud Psychosexual stages:
 Latency [6-12 year]
 A period of suspended sexual activities;
Energy shift to physical and intellectual
activities. Focus on achievement
 Genital [Adolescent – adulthood (12 &
above)]
 Genital are the focus of stimulation with the
onset of puberty
 Mature sexual relationship develop
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Erikson’s Psychosocial stages
Late Adulthood (60 above)
Integrity vs Despair
Middle Adulthood (40’s-50’s)
Generativity vs Stagnation
Young Adulthood (20 -30’s)
Intimacy vs Isolation
Adolescent (12-19)
Identity vs Role Confusion
Middle childhood (6-11)
Industry vs Inferiority
Early Childhood (3-5)
Initiative vs Guilt
Toddler (1-2)
Infancy (0-1)
Autonomy vs Shame/doubt
Trust vs Distrust
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Behaviorism & Social Learning
Classical
Conditioning
(Pavlov)
Stimulus –
Response
Operant
Conditioning
(Skinner)
Reinforcers
(Reward) and
Punishments
Social Learning
(Bandura)
Modeling
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Behavioral Theory
 Classical Conditioning
 Operant Conditioning
(B.F. Skinner)
 Ivan Pavlov
• Stimulus & Response
 Learning based on association
of a stimulus that does not
ordinarily elicit a response with
another stimulus that does elicit
the response.
• Learning based on reinforcement
(punishment) or punishment
• Positive reinforcement
• Negative reinforcement
• Punishment
• Behavior modification
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Behavioral Theory
 Social Learning Theory
 Albert Bandura
 Modelling (Role model)
 Theory that behaviors are learned by
observing and imitating models
 Observational learning
 Models
 Importance of values and thoughts in
imitating behavior of a model
 Practical implications?
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Behaviorism & Social Learning
 Development results from learning
 Behaviorism – a mechanistic theory
 Continuous change
 Quantitative change
 Importance of the environment
 Associative learning
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Cognitive Theory
 Socio-Cultural Theory
 L. Vygotsky
 Jean Piaget
 Cognitive Development
•
• Sensorimotor
(0-2)
• Preoperational (2-6)
• Concrete Operational (6-11)
• Formal Operation (11-adulthood)
•
Community & culture influence on
development  Focus is the social, cultural,
and historical complex of which the child is
part.
Social Interaction
• Zone of proximal development –
The difference between what a child
can do alone and with help
• Scaffolding –Temporary support to
help a child master a task.
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Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
 Transmission of culture to new
generation
 Beliefs, customs, skills
 Social interaction necessary to
learn culture
 Cooperative dialogue with more
knowledgeable members of
society


Zone of proximal
Scaffolding SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ
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Cognitive Theory
 Moral Development
 Kohlberg
 Paras 1: Moraliti Pra- konvensional (4-9 tahun)
 Orientasi dendaan dan patuh/taat
 Hedonisme Instrumental/Orientasi Egoistik
 Paras 2:Peringkat Konvensional (10-15 tahun)
 Moraliti “budak baik”
 Moraliti mengekalkan susunan sosial & autoriti
 Paras 3:Peringkat Pasca Konvensional
 Moraliti kontrak, hak individu dan undang-undang
secara demokrasi
 Orientasi prinsip-prinsip moral yang universal dan
beretika
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THE ECOLOGICAL-SYSTEMS
APPROACH
 Human Ecological System
 U. Bronfenbrenner
 View of development that sees the
individual as inseparable from the
social context
 Urie Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological
theory
 Understanding processes and
contexts of development
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



Micro system
Meso system
Exosystem
Macrosystem
Chronosyste
m
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Ecological Systems Theory
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RESEARCH METHODS IN
STUDYING CHILDREN
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Research methods
 Qualitative and quantitative research
 Scientific method – system of established
principles and processes of scientific inquiry
 Identifying a problem
 Formulating hypotheses
 Collecting data
 Analyzing the data
 Disseminating findings
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Sampling
 Groups of participants chosen to represent
the entire population
 The sample should adequately represent the
population under study
 Generalization
 Random selection
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Forms of data collection
 Naturalistic and laboratory observations
 Parental self-reports
 Clinical interview
 Open-ended interview
 Structured interview
 Questionnaire
 Psychophysiological Methods
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Systematic Observation

Observe respondent in their natural setting
 Naturalistic Observation

In the “field” or natural environment where
behavior happens
 Structured observation

Laboratory situation set up to evoke behavior of
interest

All participants have equal chance to display
behavior
 Participant observation

Incognito
 Record data
 Audio
 Video
 Manual
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Interviews
Clinical Interview
 Flexible,
conversational style
 Probes for
participant’s point of
view
Structured Interview
 Each participant is
asked same questions
in same way
 May use questionnaires,
get answers from
groups
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Basic research designs

Case studies
 Collect various information about a subject to be
studied (people/event)
 Make a conclusion about subject understudied.
 Ethnographic studies
 Participant observation
 Correlational studies –
 To examine the relationship between 2 variables
(independent and dependent variables)
 Research intended to discover whether a statistical
relationship between two variables exists
 Problems of control and interpretation of causality
 Survey - A study on respondent’s views  on certain
issues
 Use Questionnaires/Structured interview schedule
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Correlation Coefficients
Direction
Magnitude
 Size of the number between
0 and 1.
 Closer to one (positive or
negative) is a stronger
relationship
 Indicated by + or - sign.
 Positive (+) means, as one
variable increases, so does the
other
 Negative (-) means, as one
variable increase, the other
decreases.
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Correlations
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Experimental studies
 To examine the cause & effect of a phenomena
understudied
 Rigorously controlled, replicable procedure in which
the researcher manipulates variables to assess the
effect of one on the other.
 Independent variable - the condition over which
the experimenter has direct control
 Dependent variable - the condition that may or
may not change as a result of changes in the
independent variable
 Experimental group and control group
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Independent and Dependent Variables
Independent variable
 Experimenter changes,
or manipulates
 Expected to cause
changes in another
variable.
Modified Experiments:
Field Experiments
 Use rare opportunities for
natural assignment in
natural settings
Dependent variable
 Experimenter measures,
but does not manipulate
 Expected to be influenced
by the independent
variable
Natural Experiment
 Compare differences in
treatment that already
exist
 Groups chosen to match
characteristics as much as
possible
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Designs for Studying Development
Longitudinal
Same participants studied repeatedly at different
ages
Cross-sectional
People of differing ages all studied at the same
time
LongitudinalCross-sectional
Same groups of different-aged people studied
repeatedly as they change ages.
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Children’s Research Rights
 Protection from harm
 Right to Informed consent
 Knowledge of results
 Beneficial treatments
 Avoidance of deception
 Debriefing, providing a full account and
justification of research activities, should
take place with children, but does not
always work as well
 Right to privacy and confidentiality
SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ
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