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Theories of
Instructional Design
A Study of Psychological Foundations,
Learning Environments, and Learner
Motivation
Tram Truong
Feb. 14, 2011
INST 5131: Assignment 2
PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS
Introduction
Behavioral Learning
Cognitive
Info Processing
Schema &
Cognitive Load
Situated Learning
Learning
Gagné’s
Theory of Instruction
Constructivism
A variety of different theories have influenced the field
of instructional design; however, they all have one
underlying notion – instruction leads to learning.
(Reiser & Dempsey, 2007, p. 36)
Behavioral Learning Theory
Behaviorists, such as B.F. Skinner, believe
that learning can be predicted based on
the repetition of the learner’s behavior in
certain learning situations (Reiser & Dempsey,
2007, p. 38). They focus on observable
behaviors and use positive and negative
reinforcement techniques to enforce
learning (Funderstanding, 2008, para. 1-9).
Behavioral Learning Theory, continued
Conditioning
Classic
Conditioning
Natural reflex
response, i.e., fear of
public speaking
(Universal learning
process)
Behavioral/
Operant
Conditioning
Response is
reinforced, i.e., praise
for good grades
Adapted from (Funderstanding, 2008, para. 9).
Cognitive Information Processing
Information
Processing
[Sensory, short-term, or longterm memory to retrieve data]
Adapted from(Driscoll, 2005, p.74)
Sensory Memory
Learners organize and
code groups of patterns
or information
Short-term Memory
Learners hold info briefly
to connect with other info
in long-term memory
Long-term Memory
Learners remember and
apply info long after it was
originally learned.
(Reiser & Dempsey, 2007, p. 38)
Cognitive Information Processing, continued
Although cognitivist
accepts behavioristic
beliefs, they deem
“learning as involving the
acquisition or
reorganization of the
cognitive structures
through which humans
process and store
information" (Good and
Brophy, 1990, p. 187).
Adapted from (Reiser & Dempsey, 2007, p. 39)
Gagné’s Theory of Instruction
Learning is based on 3 components:
Taxonomies of Learning
outcomes that depicts ways that humans
can learn
Internal and External Learning
Conditions specific to each learning
outcome
Gagné’s Nine Events of
Instruction helps facilitate the
process of learning
(Reiser & Dempsey, 2007, p. 41)
Gagné’s Theory of Instruction, continued
Five major categories:
1. Verbal information
2. Intellectual skills
3. Cognitive strategies
4. Attitudes
5. Motor skills
Taxonomies
of Learning
Different learning
conditions are required
for each learning
outcome, i.e., learning
conditions of a motor
skill (riding a bike) vs.
an intellectual skill
(choosing the correct
decision)
Internal and
External
Learning
Conditions
1. Gain attention
2. Inform objectives
3. Stimulate recall of prior
learning
4. Present stimulus
5. Provide guidance
6. Elicit performance
7. Provide feedback
8. Assess performance
9. Enhance retention and
transfer
Gagné’s Nine
Events of
Instruction
Adapted from (Reiser & Dempsey, 2007, p. 41)
Constructivism
Learning is about actively
engaging in the surrounding
environment, making sense
of what is seen and
experienced and then
validating those ideas and
understandings with friends
and teachers.
(Reiser & Dempsey, 2007, p. 42)
Constructivism, continued
Learning is a search
for meaning
Mental models help
students perceive
the world and their
assumptions
Guiding
Principles
Meaning
requires
understanding
wholes as well as
parts
Assessments
are essential to the
learning process to
ensure learning has
taken place
Adapted from
(Funderstanding,
2008, para. 2).
Personal Learning Foundation
Learning, to me, is not only based on one philosophical framework but
rather from combination of practices and beliefs ranging from the
behaviorist point of view to cognitivism and constructivism.
Positive and Negative
Constructive Feedback is
necessary to improve behavior or
performance
Validating ideas with peers
and personal experience is an
essential part of the learning process
Learning relies on linking new
data to old data stored in our
memory
Learning outcomes and
conditions influence lesson planning
Effective learning instruction needs to
be informative, engaging and
include interactive activities
relevant to learning outcomes
LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS
Introduction
One of the key components in designing effective instruction is
taking in account the conditions and requirements of the
learning environment. Whether learning takes place in the
classroom or while on the job, teachers must realize the
importance of adjusting their instruction in accordance to the
learning environment.
Complex Learning Environments
Constructivists encourage the use of complex learning
environments to support learning goals. (Reiser & Dempsey, 2007, p.42)
Engage
learners in
activities
relevant to
learning
outcomes
Provide
collaboration
opportunities
where
perspectives
can be
exchanged
Support
learners in
setting their
own goals and
regulations in
their learning
Encourage
learners to
reflect on what
and how they
are learning
Cognitive Apprenticeship
Cognitive apprenticeship is the process where the
teacher educates that skill or information to an learner.
(Wikipedia, 2010, para. 1)
It is “designed, among
other things, to bring these
tacit processes into the
open, where students can
observe, enact, and
practice them with help
from the teacher” (Collins,
Brown, & Newman, 1987, p. 4).
Communities of Practice
Communities of practice are groups of people who share a
concern or a passion for something they do and learn how to
do it better as they interact regularly. (Wenger, 2006, para. 4)
Defining characteristics
(1) The Domain: group has a shared
identity/interest that distinguishes them
from non-members
(2) The Community: group engages
in activities , helps each other and learn
together
(3) The Practice: practitioners who
develop a shared repertoire of resources
(Wenger, 2006, para. 5)
Technology Enabled
“Perhaps it is time for us to take a much closer look at the
technology we have available and find new and innovative
ways of building a curriculum around it” (Halocha, 2007, p. 125).
Encourages
blended learning
Pedagogic
audience
Benefits online
learners
Ease of using
multimedia
Evolved from
museum schools
to online LMS
Personal Learning Environment
Interactive
activities and
projects
Relevant and
realistic
examples and
scenarios
Blended
learning
instruction
Truong’s
Learning
Environment
Assessments
to ensure
learning took
place
Positive and
negative
constructive
feedback
LEARNER MOTIVATION
Introduction
Even if the instruction may be interactive, filled with relevant
information, and engaging, without learner motivation the materials
developed may just be another boring course to the learner. Therefore,
understanding learner motivation is an important aspect when
designing sound training.
ARCS Model
John Keller’s ARCS model is systematic and uses a problem-solving
approach that helps provide a rational basis for tactic selection.
(Reiser & Dempsey, 2007, p. 87)
Attention
Perceptual
arousal
Inquiry arousal
Relevance
Concrete
language
Relevant
examples
Explain
likelihood to
succeed
Provide objectives
and pre-requisites
Reward system
Feedback and
reinforcement
Confidence
Satisfaction
Learner control
and feedback
Provide real-world
opportunities to practice
acquired knowledge
Adapted from (Learning Theories Knowledgebase, 2011, para. 4-7)
Attribution
Stable = same outcome in
different occasion
Unstable = different
outcome in different
occasion
Controllable/
Uncontrollable
The cause of the success
or failure lies in ourselves
or from our environment
Stable/Unstable
Internal/External
Learners' current self-perceptions strongly influence the ways in which
they will interpret the success or failure of their current efforts and
hence their future tendency to perform these same behaviors.
Controllable = factor
that can be altered
Uncontrollable = factor
unable to alter
(Author unknown, 2011, para. 1-3,
http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/edPsybook/Edpsy5/edpsy5_attribution.h
tm)
Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy refers to individuals' beliefs about their capabilities
to perform well (Graham, n.d., para. 11). People are likely to engage in
activities to the extent that they perceive themselves to be
competent at those activities (Author unknown, 2011, para. 1,
http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/edPsybook/Edpsy5/Edpsy5_efficacy.htm).
Instruction manipulations to increase self-efficacy:
Encourage using short-term over long-term goals
progress is easier to judge in short-term goals
Use specific learning strategies that increases learner’s attention
to the task
Give performance-contingent rewards to reward single task
mastery
(Graham, n.d., para. 15)
Self-Regulation
Learners attempt to monitor and control their own learning (Pintrich,
n.d., para. 1). Self-regulating learners are much more likely to be
successful in school, to learn more, and to achieve at higher levels
(Pintrich, n.d., para. 13).
General Domains
1
2
3
4
Cognition
Motivation
Behavior
Environment
Using strategies to
help remember,
understand, and
solve problems
Using strategies to
help regulate
motivations and
emotions
Using strategies to
attempt to control
overt behaviors
Using strategies to
monitor and
control the
environment
(Pintrich, n.d., para. 5-9)
Personal Learner Motivation
Friendly, warm,
inviting, promotes
learning
Reward system
(praises, stickers,
recognition)
Environment Interactive
Incentives
Relevance
Fun actitives that
requires
interaction with
peers
Examples and
activities relevant
to learning
outcomes
REFERENCES
References
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Attribution Theory. (2011). Retrieved February, 10, 2011 from
http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/edPsybook/Edpsy5/edpsy5_attribution.h
tm
Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Newman, S. E. (1987). Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the
craft of reading, writing and mathematics (Technical Report No. 403). BBN Laboratories,
Cambridge, MA. Centre for the Study of Reading, University of Illinois. January, 1987.
Driscoll, M.P. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction (3rd ed.). Needham Heights,
MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Funderstanding (2008). Funderstanding constructivism. Retrieved February 10, 2011
from http://www.funderstanding.com/content/constructivism
Funderstanding (2008). Funderstanding behaviorism. Retrieved February 10, 2011 from
http://www.funderstanding.com/content/behaviorism
Graham, Sandra (n.d). Motivation - Instruction, Self-regulated Learning – OVERVIEW.
Retrieved February 10, 2011 from
http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2250/Motivation.html
References
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Halocha, J. (2007). Using ICT in Teaching. In J. Johnston, J. Halocha & M. Chater (Eds.),
Developing Teaching Skills in the Primary School (pp. 119–134). Maidenhead, UK: Open
University Press.
Learning Theories Knowledgebase (2011). ARCS Model of Motivational Design (Keller).
Retrieved February 13th, 2011 from http://www.learning-theories.com/kellers-arcsmodel-of-motivational-design.html
Pintrich, Paul R. (n.d). Motivation - Self-regulated Learning. Retrieved February 10, 2011
from http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2249/Motivation-SELF-REGULATEDLEARNING.html
Reiser, R.A. & Dempsey, J.V. (2007). Trends and issues in instructional design and
technology (2nd Edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Self-Efficacy. (2011). Retrieved February 10, 2011 from
http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/edPsybook/Edpsy5/Edpsy5_efficacy.htm
Wenger, Etienne (2006). Communities of practice a brief introduction. Retrieved
February, 11, 2011 from http://www.ewenger.com/theory/