Transcript Chapter06 - J. Randall Price, Ph.D.

Definition of Learning
• Any lasting change
• in behavior or mental processes
• that results from experience.
Learning and Human Behavior
• Both behavior and cognitive learning occurs
in humans.
• Human behavior more influenced by
learning than instincts than other animals.
• Human learning ranges from simple to
complex.
Core Concept 6-1
• Classical conditioning is a basic form of
learning in which a stimulus that produces an
innate reflex becomes attached with a
previously neutral stimulus, which then
acquires the power to elicit essentially the same
response.
Classical Conditioning
• Classical--a form or system considered of
first significance in earlier times.
• Conditioning--to adapt or modify to
conform to an environment.
Classical Conditioning
• Involves a reflexive (automatic) response
• Involves a neutral stimulus
• Involves learning an association between
two stimuli
• Involves a stimulus that elicits (brings out) a
reflexive response and a neutral stimulus
Ivan Pavlov
(1849-1936)
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•
•
•
Russian physiologist
Studied digestion
Won Nobel Prize
Became interested in conditioning
Prior to conditioning
Neutral stimulus
(tone)
(Orientation to sound
but no response)
Unconditioned stimulus
(food powder in mouth)
Unconditioned response
(salivation)
Conditioning
Neutral stimulus
CS (tone)
+
Unconditioned stimulus
(food powder)
Conditioned response
(salivation)
After conditioning
Conditioned stimulus
(tone)
Conditioned response
(salivation)
The Essentials of
Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned
stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned
response (UCR)
Conditioned
stimulus (CS)
Conditioned
response (CR)
The Essentials of
Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned
stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned
response (UCR)
Conditioned
stimulus (CS)
Conditioned
response (CR)
Elicits an unconditioned
response
The Essentials of
Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned
stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned
response (UCR)
Conditioned
stimulus (CS)
Conditioned
response (CR)
Elicited by an
unconditioned stimulus
without prior learning
The Essentials of
Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned
stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned
response (UCR)
Conditioned
stimulus (CS)
Conditioned
response (CR)
Neutral stimulus that
comes to elicit the
conditioned response
The Essentials of
Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned
stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned
response (UCR)
Conditioned
stimulus (CS)
Conditioned
response (CR)
Elicited by a previously
neutral stimulus that
has become associated
with the unconditioned
stimulus
Pavlov’s Dogs
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UCS-food
UCR-salivation to food
CS-bell
CR-salivation to bell
(1)
Acquisition
(CS + UCS)
(2)
Extinction
(CS alone)
(Time)
Trials
Rest period
Strength of the CR
(Weak)
(Strong)
Acquisition, Extinction, and
Spontaneous Recovery
(3)
Spontaneous
Recovery
(CS alone)
Chance Wayne
Charles M.
Claiborne (Grandtractor)
Core Concept 6-2
• In operant conditioning, the consequences of
behavior, such as rewards and punishment,
influence the chance that the behavior will
occur again.
Law of Effect
• Responses that
produce “desirable”
effects are learned.
• Trial and error
learning.
B.F. Skinner
• Radical behaviorist
• Preferred the term
“reinforcer”.
• Studied rats and
pigeons in a “Skinner
Box”
Skinner Baby Box
Reinforcer
• Condition that occurs after a response.
• Strengthens the response it follows.
• Either presenting a positive stimulus
condition or removing a negative one.
Positive Reinforcement
• Stimulus presented after a response
• Increases probability of that response
occurring again.
• Roughly same as a reward.
Candy
A Smile
Money
Laughing
Grades
Recognition
Green Stamps
(for my parents)
Negative Reinforcement
• Stimulus removed after a response.
• Increases probability of that response
occurring again.
• Examples
Nagging
Seat Belt Buzzer
Extinction
• Response is weakened when reinforcer is
removed.
Schedules of Reinforcement
• Frequency of reinforcement--how often is
reinforcement given.
• Timing of reinforcement--when is
reinforcement give.
Continuous Reinforcement
• All correct responses are reinforced.
Intermittent Reinforcement
• Some, but not all, responses are reinforced.
Resistance to Extinction
• Intermittent reinforcement makes responses
more able to resist extinction than
continuous reinforcement.
• In other words, the responses persist in spite
of no reinforcement.
Intermittent Schedules
• Some are based on the number of responses
that must occur before reinforcement (ratio).
• Others are based on how much time has
elapsed (interval).
• Some are predictable (fixed).
• Others change randomly (variable).
Fixed Ratio Schedule
• Reinforcement comes
after a certain,
unvarying number of
responses.
• Example: piecework
Variable Ratio Schedule
• Number responses to
obtain reinforcement
varies.
• Example: gambling
Fixed Interval Schedule
• Reinforcement comes
after a certain, fixed
time period.
• Example: weekly quiz.
Variable Interval Schedule
• Time period between
reinforcement varies.
• Example: fishing.
Types of Reinforcers
• Primary--reinforcers that have a innate
biological basis.
• Secondary--reinforcers that acquire
their power by association.
Food
Grades
Paycheck
Attention
Recognition
Water
Incentives
Air
Cash
Premack Principle
• More preferred act can be used to reinforce
a less preferred act.
• “Grandma’s Principle”--eat your vegetables
and you can have desert.
• Can have application to self-control
development--study first and then go out.
Punishment
• Stimulus that occurs after a response
that weakens that response.
• Can be negative or positive
punishment.
Positive Punishment
• Application of an
aversive stimulus
after a response.
Negative Punishment
• Removal of an
attractive stimulus
after a response.
Partner Yells at You
Parents Take Teenager’s Keys
Effectiveness of Punishment
• Punishment will decrease a response.
• Difficult to use effectively.
• Side-effects occur.
Example of Effective Punishment
• Squirrels attracted
to bird feeders in
our yard.
• Ate all the seed and
ran off the birds.
Example of Effective Punishment
• Your dog barks all
the time and annoys
the neighbors and
you.
Problems with Punishment
• Power to suppress behavior usually
disappears when threat of punishment is
removed.
• Punishment triggers escape or aggression.
• Punishment inhibits other learning.
• Punishment is often applied unequally.
Guidelines for Punishment
• Punishment should:
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be swift (immediate).
be certain (consistent).
be limited in duration and intensity (not abusive).
clearly target the behavior.
be limited to the situation in which the response
occurred.
– not give mixed messages
– focus on negative rather than positive punishment.
Core Concept 6-3
• According to cognitive psychology, some forms
of learning must be explained as changes in
mental processes, rather than as changes in
behavior alone.
Insight Learning
• Problem solving occurs by means of a
sudden reorganization of perceptions.
Cognitive Map
• A mental
representation of
physical space used
to get from one
place to another.
Observational Learning
• New responses are
acquired after
watching others’
behavior and the
consequences of their
behavior.