Transcript 1. Classical conditioning

Learning
• positive and relatively permanent change in
behavior”
• “It is continuous and a result of gaining new
experiences
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Categories of behavioral learning
1. Classical conditioning (Pavlov’s experiment):
Before classical conditioning
- CS (Light) ---------- NO response
- US (Food) ---------- UR (salivation)
during classical conditioning :
- CS (Light) ---------UR (Salivation)
- US (Food) ---------After classical conditioning :
• CS (Light) --------- CR (Salivation)
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2. Operant conditioning: (Skinner’s
experiment)
- Researcher prepared a box, with a bar inside
it, under the bar, there is food .
- Pressing the bar, give food
- A hungry rat inside the box: Occasionally,
the rat pressed the bar and some food falls
into the dish .
- The rat starts to press the bar again, and
more food was falling into the dish .
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In this experiment there is No external
stimulus.
-The food reinforces bar pressing
-If no food present pressing the bar
decrease.
* In classical conditioning: animal is
passive, waits until the conditioned
stimulus is presented and followed by the
unconditioned stimulus.
* In operant conditioning: the animal is
active (no conditioned stimulus)
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Reinforcement: or (reward):
"It is any event, whose occurrence increases
the probability that the behavior (response)
will be repeated.
-Positive reinforcement: the frequency of the
response increases because the response
causes increase arrival of satisfying stimulus
(food).
-Negative reinforcement: the frequency of the
response increases in removal of unpleasant
stimulus (electric shock).
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• Punishment:
• "It is any event, whose occurrence
decreases the probability that the behavior
(response) will be repeated.
* E.g. when the rat press the bar an electric
shock is turn on.
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Applications of operant conditioning
1- In psychotherapy: reinforcement of desired
behavior as: commitment to medication.
2- In academic fields: rewards after
achievements and punishment after failures in
education.
3- Many employee motivational programs use
reinforcement principles.
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Cognition and Learning
• Learning without reinforcement:
- Cognitive psychologists maintain that much
of human learning occurs without
reinforcement (reward and punishment).
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• Two types of cognitive learning:
1. latent learning:When an organism learns a new behavior but
doesn’t demonstrate this knowledge until an
incentive to do so, the learning is called latent
learning.
• Ex: You learn the way to an unfamiliar part
of town if someone tells you how to get
there.
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2. Observational learning:
Organisms' gain a great deal of knowledge
through observing the behavior of others,
observations occur by looking, touching,
listening –etc. This model is called
observational learning.
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• Psychologists developed forms of
psychotherapy based on observational
learning.
Ex. In phobia, clients can observe others
performs phobic activities safely, they can
develop confidence and imitate them
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Social cognitive theory
Theory concentrates on the question (how and
why) personality styles are maintained over
time.
1. Schemas:
- Organized sets of knowledge about particular
domains of life. (coloring the way we perceive
events).
• Ex: person with “shyness schema” will view
the slightest mistake in social situation as
disaster.
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2. Tasks:
-Tasks are based on the goals we set for
ourselves and the ideals for which we strive.
• Ex: student may focus on the task of
making friends to such an extent that he
neglects alternatives life tasks such as
making good grades.
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3. Strategies:
- Depend on schemas and tasks.
- Combination of thoughts and actions of
anticipation planning, self-monitoring and
effort.
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Critique of social cognitive theory
1- It neglects emotions as love, hate & sorrow
2. Focus on responses to specific social
situations.
3. Our thinking determine our actions. (but
sometimes behavior determines schemas).
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Stages of Cognitive Development
“Piaget’s four stages”
1. Sensorimotor- (birth to 2 years):
- The child develops a sense of self as separate
from the environment and the concept
intentionally e.g. shaking a rattle.
2. Preoperational- (2 to 6 years):
- develops the ability to express self with language
- represents objects by images and wards
- begins to classify objects by single dimension
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3. Concrete operations- (6 to 12 years):
- begins to apply logic to thinking.
- understands spatiality and reversibility
- begins to classify objects by several
dimensions.
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4. Formal operations- (12 to ≥15 years:
- Develops logical thinking and reasoning,
and achieves cognitive maturity
- Concerned with future and ideological
problems.
*Piaget’s theory suggests that individuals
reach cognitive maturity by middle to late
adolescence.
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Critique of Paget's theory:
1. Piaget’s theory is useful when working with
children: the nurse is aware of his or her level
of cognitive development.
2. Cognitive development is less rigid and
more individualized than this theory suggests.
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