Transcript Night 2-Principles of Management Students

Night 2
Session III
Motivation and Behavior and
Theories of Motivation
Some Theories Of Motivation
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Need (or Content) Theories
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Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
McClelland’s Manifest Needs
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Process Theories
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Learning Theory
Goal Setting Theory
Equity Theory
Expectancy Theory
Next
Learning Theories
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Learning is any relatively permanent change
in behavior produced by experience.
Three types of learning:
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classical conditioning
operant conditioning
social learning
Classical Conditioning
Step 1: Before
Conditioning
Bell
No Response
and
Food
(Salivation)
Response
Classical Conditioning
Step 2: During
Conditioning
Bell Followed by
Food
(Salivation)
Response
Classical Conditioning
Step 3: After
Conditioning
Bell
(Salivation)
Response
Operant Conditioning
Stimulus
Response
Consequence
Arranging Contingencies to Increase
Desired Behaviors
Positive
Reinforcement
Stimulus
Desired
Response
Positive
Consequence
Escape Learning (Negative Reinforcement)
Stimulus
Desired
Response
Removal of
Noxious
Consequence
Desired
Response
Avoidance of
Noxious
Consequence
Avoidance Learning
Back
Functions of Goals
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Goals let employees know what they are expected
to do.
Goals relieve boredom.
Reaching goals and getting positive feedback leads
to increased liking for the task and satisfaction with
job performance.
Attaining goals leads to recognition by peers,
supervisors, and others.
Attaining goals leads to feelings of increased selfconfidence, pride in achievement, and willingness
to accept future challenges.
Important Goal Characteristics
SPECIFIC GOALS
GOAL
ACCEPTANCE
DIFFICULT GOALS
MOTIVATION
FEEDBACK ON
PROGRESS
COMPETITION
PARTICIPATION
IN GOAL SETTING
GOAL
COMMITMENT
Management by Objectives
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Management by objectives (MBO) is a motivational
technique in which the manager and employee work
together to set employee goals.
MBO combines many key goal setting principles,
including setting of specific goals, participation in goal
setting, and feedback on performance.
MBO may be difficult and time consuming to
implement, and may encourage focus on easilyquantifiable goals.
68 of 70 major studies showed MBO to result in
productivity gains.
The Bottom Line: Goal Setting Theory
Use Employee
Participation to
Set Difficult and
Specific Goals
Ensure That the
Employee UnderStands the Goals
and is Committed
to Achieving Them
Link Appropriate
Consequences to
Goal Achievement
Provide
Management Support
(Including Feedback)
for Achievement of
Employee Goals
Assess Employee
Job Performance
Against Goals
Back
Why Be Fair? General Reasons
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When people experience a situation they feel
is not fair, they experience an unpleasant
state of tension.
Some people try to be fair because they think
others will reward them for being fair.
Behaving fairly may bolster a person’s selfesteem.
Most people find it comforting to believe that
life is fair.
Why Be Fair? Employers’ Reasons
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To conform to business norms.
To attract superior workers to their company
and weed out inferior workers.
To motivate employees to produce.
To develop trust.
Equity Theory Equation
Op
Ip
=
Oo
IO
Restoring Equity (Underpaid Case)
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Raise actual outcomes
Lower inputs
Perceptually distort inputs and/or outcomes
Perceptually distort comparison other’s inputs
and/or outcomes
Leave the situation
Act to change the comparison other’s inputs
and/or outcomes
Change the comparison other
The Bottom Line: Equity Theory
Assess
Employee
Perceptions
of Equity in
Their Work
Situations
Identify
Employees
Who
Perceive
Inequities
Implement
Changes and
Communicate
Them to
Employees
Identify the
Basis for
Employee
Perceptions
of Inequity
Evaluate
Management
Policies and Practices
to Determine the
Validity of Employee
Perceptions
Identify Specific
Changes That Can
Be Made to Address
Employee Equity
Concerns
Back
Second-Order Outcome 1 (e.g.,
Approval of Supervisor)
with Valence V1
Second-Order Outcome 2 (e.g.,
Pay) with Valence V2
First-Order
Outcome
(e.g., Performance)
INSTRUMENTALITIES
Effort to Perform at
a Certain Level
EXPECTANCY
The Components of
Expectancy
Theory
Second-Order Outcome 3 (e.g.,
Esteem of Coworkers)
with Valence V3
Second-Order Outcome 4 (e.g.,
Promotion Opportunities)
with Valence V4
Second-Order Outcomes 5 to n
(e.g., Job Security, Better Work
Hours) with Valences V5 to Vn
The Linkage of Effort to a FirstOrder Outcome
Role
Perceptions
Ability
First-Order
Outcome
Effort
Situational
Constraints
Determinants of Effort to Perform
Valence of
Performance
Expectancy
Effort to
Perform
Implications of Expectancy Theory
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Recognize that three conditions are necessary for motivation
to perform.
Assess perceptions of each of these conditions.
Identify gaps between employee and management
perceptions.
Make sure you are giving employees what they want.
Ask what factors may be weakening expectancy perceptions.
Ask what factors may be weakening instrumentality
perceptions.
If employees appear to be poorly motivated, work backward.
The Bottom Line: Expectancy Theory
Identify Desired
Level of Employee
Motivation
Provide Training,
Direction, and
Opportunities to
Succeed to Enhance
Employee’s Belief that
He/She Can Achieve
High Job Performance
Promote Managerial
Support to Ensure
That Employee
Motivation Results in
High Job Performance
Promote Employee’s
Belief that Job
Performance Matters
by Using Appropriate
Reward Policies and
Practices
Use Organizational Reward
Systems and Job Design to
Link Positively Valued
Consequences to Employee
Job Performance in an
Equitable Manner
Back
What is Leadership?
Leadership is the
ability to influence
others toward the
achievement of goals
The Changing Look of Leadership
“Old Look”
“New Look”
Traits
Behaviors
Universal
Situational
One-Way Influence
Reciprocal Influence
Uniform
Dyadic
Leading Subordinates
Leading Everyone
Transactional
Transformational
Emerging Perspectives on Leadership
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While early leadership approaches emphasized the traits of
successful leaders -- who they are -- newer approaches ask
how successful leaders behave -- what they do.
Early approaches to leadership tended to take a universalistic
perspective, asking, “What works?” Newer approaches,
recognizing that characteristics of the situation, such as
followers’ needs and skills and various aspects of the task
must be considered, ask, “What works when?”
Early approaches considered primarily one-way influence,
how a leader influences followers. Newer approaches
recognize that the influence process is reciprocal -- just as
leaders are influencing followers, followers are influencing
leaders.
Emerging Perspectives on Leadership (Cont)
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While early approaches tended to assume that leaders treat
their various followers in similar ways, more recent
approaches recognize that leaders may -- for good or bad
reasons -- treat different followers differently.
While leadership approaches initially focused on the
relationship of leaders to their subordinates, modern views
are more inclusive; the “others” whom leaders influence may
sometimes be team members or even hierarchical superiors.
Most early approaches to leadership tended to consider how a
leader might influence others through a series of transactions.
Newer approaches look more broadly at how leaders take
actions to transform followers and organizations.
Leader Traits
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The earliest approach to the study of leadership was to try to
identify characteristics, or traits, of successful leaders.
Literally thousands of studies have now explored leadership traits.
Of the traits, activity, intelligence, knowledge, dominance, and selfconfidence are most often found to be linked to leader success.
Unfortunately, most reviews of studies relating to leadership traits
have concluded that the trait approach has not been fruitful.
Very few traits show up consistently across studies.
Also, since traits are relatively stable, it is unlikely that leaders can
develop them through training.
So, attention has shifted from what successful leaders are to what
they do.
Autocratic and Democratic Styles
Lower
Autocratic
Degree of
Participation
Higher
Democratic
Autocratic and Democratic Styles
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Autocratic leaders make decisions themselves,
without inputs from subordinates. Democratic
leaders let subordinates participate in decision
making.
Democratic style is consistently linked to higher
levels of subordinate satisfaction.
Democratic style is usually positively, but weakly,
related to productivity.
This weak link of democratic style to performance
may be because many factors determine whether a
democratic style is appropriate, including the nature
of the tasks and the characteristics of subordinates.
Autocratic and Democratic Styles
(Continued)
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When tasks are simple and repetitive, participation has little
effect, because “there is little to participate about.”
When subordinates are intelligent and desire independence,
participation is especially important.
Participation is empowering and satisfying, and it generates
enthusiasm for the decisions that are reached.
Participation takes time, and people sometimes don’t like to
participate, especially if they care little about the decision.
Since leaders may give more productive followers more
responsibility, the relationship between democratic style and
performance could be due to the impact of performance on style
rather than vice versa.
Consideration and Initiating Structure
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Effective leaders show concern for both the task and
the people they leader. Without concern for task, the
job won’t get done. Without concern for people,
satisfaction, motivation, and team spirit will suffer and
performance will ultimately suffer.
Two sets of leader behaviors -- consideration and
initiating structure -- address these concerns.
Consideration and initiating structure are not
conflicting sets of behaviors. Skillful leaders should be
able to exhibit both sets of behaviors, and they should
use those behaviors as needed.
Consideration and Initiating Structure
(Continued)
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Consideration is behavior that shows friendship,
mutual trust, respect, and warmth. Considerate
leaders are friendly and approachable, look out for
the personal welfare of team members, back up the
members in their actions, and find time to listen to
them.
Initiating structure is behavior that helps clarify
the task and get the job done. Initiating leaders
provide definite standards of performance, set goals,
organize work, emphasize meeting deadlines, and
coordinate the work of team members.
Sample Items To Measure Consideration
and Initiating Structure
Consideration
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Treats all work unit members
as his or her equal
Is friendly and approachable
Does little things to make
work pleasant
Puts suggestions made by the
work unit into operation
Looks out for personal
welfare of work unit
members
Initiating Structure
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Lets work unit members
know what is expected of
them
Schedules the work to be
done
Encourages the use of
uniform procedures
Assigns work unit members
to particular tasks
Makes his or her attitudes
clear to the group
Path-Goal Theory
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The theory is called path-goal because its major
concern is how the leader influences the followers’
perceptions of their work goals, personal goals, and
paths to goal attainment.
The theory suggests that a leader’s behavior is
motivating or satisfying to the degree that the
behavior increases follower goal attainment and
clarifies the paths to these goals.
Some Contingency Factors in the PathGoal Theory
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Some task contingency variables:
 degree of structure
 degree to which the task is intrinsically satisfying
 degree to which the task provides feedback
concerning accomplishment
Some follower contingency variables:
 need for independence
 ability, experience, training
 “professional” orientation
Elements of Path-Goal Theory
Subordinate
Characteristics
Leader Behaviors:
• Directive
• Supportive
• Participative
• AchievementOriented
• Clarification of
Paths to Goals
• Increased Goal
Attainment
Task
Characteristics
Subordinate
Responses:
• Motivation
• Performance
• Satisfaction
The Bottom Line:
Applying Path-Goal Theory
Assess the
Situation
Identify Task
and Employee
Needs
Match
Appropriate
Leader
Behavior to the
Situation
If This Does Not
Work, Replace
the Leader
If This Does Not
Work, Train the
Leader to Change
His/Her
Behavior
Change
Leader
Behavior If It
Does Not Match
the Situation
Leader-Member Exchange Theory
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According to leader-member exchange theory, leaders establish a
one-on-one relationship with each follower. These relationships vary in
terms of the quality of the exchange.
Some followers -- members of the in-group -- have a high-quality
relationship with the leader, characterized by mutual trust, liking, and
respect. They enjoy the confidence of the leader, are given interesting
and challenging assignments, and in turn they work hard, are loyal, and
support the leader.
Other followers -- the out-group -- have a lower quality relationship
with the leader. The leader tends to see them as lacking motivation or
competence or loyalty, interacts with them less, and offers them fewer
chances to demonstrate their capabilities.
Out-group members may “live down” to the leader’s expectations,
carrying out the tasks defined in their formal job descriptions and facing
no real expectations of loyalty, creativity, or high performance.
Leader-Member Exchange Theory (Cont.)
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Followers may sometimes find themselves as members of outgroups due less to their abilities and potential than to favoritism,
stereotypes, and personal conflicts.
In an ideal world there would be no in-groups and out-groups. In
the real world, in-groups and out-groups are common and perhaps
cannot be avoided.
Leaders must do all they can to ensure that in-group membership
is based on ability and motivation rather than favoritism and
prejudice.
They must also ensure that followers can move between the
groups, having access to in-group membership when it is earned
and falling from such status when it is no longer justified.
The most recent focus of leader-member exchange theory is on the
process of leadership making, which develops over time in
three phases.
Leader-Member Exchange Model
S
SA
InGroup
Leader
SE
SB
SC
S
OutGroup
S
S
SD
S
S
S
S
S
S
Subordinate
The Bottom Line: Applying the
Leader-Member Exchange Model
List the
Employees in
Your Work
Unit
Identify Employees
Who You Feel
Are Part of
the “In-Group”
Implement
Leadership
Strategies
Identify Leaders
Who You Feel
Are Part of
the “Out-Group”
Develop Leadership
Strategies for Moving
Employees from
the “Out-Group”
to the “In-Group”
Types of Leadership
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Transactional Leadership: Leadership based on
transactions or exchanges -- the promise, and provision, of
rewards for good performance and threats or discipline for
poor performance.
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Transformational Leadership: Leadership
which transforms followers and organizations by:
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broadening and elevating the interests of employees
generating awareness and acceptance of the purposes
and missions of the group
stirring employees to look beyond their own self
interest for the good of the group
Elements of Transformational Leadership
ATTRIBUTED
CHARISMA
INDIVIDUALIZED
CONSIDERATION
IDEALIZED
INFLUENCE
TRANSFORMATIONAL
LEADERSHIP
INTELLECTUAL
STIMULATION
INSPIRATIONAL
LEADERSHIP
Transformational Leader Behaviors
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Attributed charisma. Charisma is a Greek word meaning
“Divinely inspired gift.” Leaders are seen as charismatic when
they display a sense of power and confidence, remain calm
during crisis situations, and provide reassurance that obstacles
can be overcome.
Idealized influence. Leaders display idealized influence
when they talk about their important values and beliefs;
consider the moral and ethical consequences of their decisions;
display conviction in their ideals, beliefs, and values; and model
values in their actions.
Intellectual stimulation. Intellectually stimulating leaders
help followers recognize problems and find ways to solve them.
They encourage followers to challenge the status quo. They
champion change and foster creative deviance.
Transformational Leader Behaviors
(Continued)
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Inspirational leadership. Inspirational leaders give
followers hope, energizing them to pursue a vision. They
envision exciting new possibilities, talk optimistically about
the future, express confidence that goals can be met, and
articulate a compelling vision of the future.
Individualized consideration. Transformational leaders
show personal interest and concern in their individual
followers, and they promote their followers’ selfdevelopment. They coach their followers, serve as their
mentors, and focus them on developing their strengths.
Skills Associated with Transformational
Leadership
ANTICIPATORY
SKILLS
SELFUNDERSTANDING
SKILLS
VISIONING
SKILLS
TRANSFORMATIONAL
LEADERSHIP
EMPOWERMENT
SKILLS
VALUECONGRUENCE
SKILLS
The Language of Leadership
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Transformational leaders must be able to inspire;
communicate their vision, ideals and beliefs;
provide compelling reassurance; and challenge
followers to think in new ways.
To do all this, transformational leaders must be
masters of communication; they must “speak the
language of leadership.”
Two aspects of the language of leadership -framing and rhetorical crafting -- are crucial.
Reflections on Leadership
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Pay careful attention to your formal or informal leadership
roles.
Successful leaders draw on a variety of power bases. Referent
power has the broadest range, and heavy reliance on coercive
power can be dangerous. Control over resources, information,
and the problem-solving process all serve to increase power.
A leader must show concern for both task accomplishment and
fulfillment of subordinate needs.
The same style or behavior may not work in every situation. In
deciding how to behave, consider the maturity and needs of
your subordinates, the structure and other characteristics of
the task, and the nature of the organization.
Reflections on Leadership (Cont.)
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Leadership can be frustrating. Structured tasks, separation of
superiors and subordinates, bureaucratic constraints, and other
factors can sometimes handcuff the leader. Try to be aware of,
and deal with, leadership substitutes and neutralizers.
As a leader you should not accept situations as fixed. You may
be able to change task structure, your power, relations with
subordinates, and other dimensions.
The models reviewed in this chapter show that leader
sensitivity, critical thinking, and flexibility are crucial.
Remember that vision and inspiration are important. Don’t
ignore transformational aspects of the leadership role.