Transcript conditioned
How do parents and other influential adults consciously try to shape children’s behavior and attitudes by rewarding good behavior and punishing bad behavior? Can parental behavior also unconsciously shape children’s behavior? If so, how? Form into groups of 3-4. Appoint a recorder per group. Write a series of 4 or more statements that explain causeand-effect relationships between types of stimuli and responses. Here is your homework assignment. Recall a situation in which you taught another person a skill or how to do a task. Write a brief account about it (1-page.) Make sure to include a description of the strategy you used in teaching—modeling, rewards, punishments, etc.—and whether or not you were successful. Let’s begin by reviewing a 1982 experiment about learning. Turn to p. 241 of the textbook and read “Which Pen Would You Choose?” at the top of the page. So how do behaviorists and OK—so howthe does our textbook the cognitive differ definepsychologists learning? on the topic of learning? An experience which produces a lasting change in behavior or mental processes Behaviorists: reject mental processes and focus only on what can be observed. Cognitive psychologists: in addition to behavior, learning requires that we make inferences about hidden mental processes Hello Mustang AP psych students. I’m Winnie, Simoncini’s dog. How does learning differ from instincts? Instinctive (species-typical behavior) is heavily influenced by genetic programming. Most of what my fellow animals and I do is instinctive, because our actions tend be influenced very little by experience. Your (human) behavior is more influenced by learning based on experience. Can YOU give tell me the definitions of habituation and mere exposure effect? Habituation: involves learning NOT TO RESPOND to stimulation (ignoring the sound of traffic on a busy street—sensory adaptation) “The few; the proud; the Marines” Mere exposure effect: a preference for stimuli to which have been Thewe heck with the noise—I’ve previously exposed—accounts learned to sleep for a baby. the effectiveness oflike advertising. Pavlov’s experiment: Classical conditioning Controlling a response such that an old response becomes attached to a new stimulus. Example in your lives: Bells at school: begin/end passing periods or fire drills Pavlov’s experiment: the tuning fork Pavlov’s experiment was a neutral stimulus (nothing that had to do with the response to meat prior to conditioning) Unconditioned stimulus: Event that leads to certain predictable response without previous training. Unconditioned response: The salivation—the reaction occurs naturally & automatically given unconditioned stimulus (a reflex) Acquisition—the conditioned, or learned, response NS/UCS = CS and leads to CR + = Conditioned stimulus (CS) Neutral event which, after conditioning, leads to a response. Conditioned response (CR) The salivation caused by the conditioned stimulus— the neutral event that would not normally lead to salivation Extinction stop presenting food after sound of tuning fork, sound gradually loses effect. After time Spontaneous recovery: recovery: conditioned Spontaneous responses may appear following extinction, after time, but generally at a lower intensity. After lengthy time Generalization Animal responds to a second stimulus similar to the original CS, without prior training in second stimulus. Discrimination-Respond differently to different stimuli John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner and the Little Albert Experiment Conditioned Albert to react fearfully to a white lab rat. Created the fear by repeatedly presenting the rat paired with an aversive UCS—loud sound. Took only 7 trials for Little Albert to react with fear at the appearance of the rat (CS) alone. The fear—extinguished rapidly. Other applications of classical conditioning Sailors and battle stations during World War II—still a strong reaction 15 years later Counter-conditioning Here is a scene from the 1995 movie, French Kiss, in which the character Kate undergoes a form of counter-conditioning Classical conditioning in humans Hobart & Mollie Mowrer (1938) Bed-wetting: the bell and pad Alarm = UCS Waking = UR Full bladder = CS UCS + CS= Child wakes (CR) Classical conditioning in humans Taste aversions Sickness after eating something for the first time or after not eating for some time—tend to blame the new food. John Garcia and Robert Koelling (1966) Garcia and Koelling found that rats readily learned an association between flavored water and illness, yet the rats could not be conditioned to associate flavored water with an electric shock delivered through a grid on the floor of the test chamber Taste aversions: a challenge to Pavlov The tendency to develop taste aversions appears to be part of our biological nature; therefore, taste aversions are not a simple classically conditioned response Garcia et al used classical (aversive) conditioning to dissuade wild coyotes from attacking sheep. Wrapped toxic lamb burgers in sheepskins and stashed them on sheep ranches—30-50% reduction in sheep attacks Oh boy! Now it’s time for an experiment. We science teachers just love experiments. To begin, I need a volunteer. The Lamp Experiment Materials needed: lamp, table, glass of water & a spoon; plus a volunteer Learning from the consequences of behavior. Subject causes some change in the environment Repeat or eliminate behaviors to get reward or avoid punishment Grea t job! Edward Thorndike (1898) The Thorndike Puzzle Box (1898) Law of effect: a change in behavior based on the outcome of previous trials Reinforcement stimulus or event that affects the likelihood that an immediately preceding behavior will be repeated. Positive Conditioning vs. Negative Conditioning Positive: strengthens a response by occurring after the response and making the behavior more likely to occur again Negative: the removal of an unpleasant or aversive stimulus (using an umbrella during the rain) Differ: They mean add or apply vs. subtract or remove; not good vs. bad B. F. Skinner and the Operant chamber or “Skinner Box.” Could be set to control the timing and frequency of reinforcement (Contingencies of Reinforcement) The “Skinner Box”: Skinner’s Hypothesis, Methodology, and Results Rats placed in “Operant chambers” Shaped to get closer and closer to the bar in order to receive food Eventually required to press the bar to receive food Food is a reinforcer Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous schedule Operant conditioning is not limited to simple behaviors—it is used to create new knowledge by building on old knowledge. Shaping—the process in which reinforcement is used to sculpt new responses out of old ones. My assistant coaches and I use shaping when we teach our team new plays or variations on existing plays. We do that by developing response chains: combinations of responses that follow one another in a sequence. That’s right, Coach Merzon. We start by reviewing the basics, like blocking and the numbering of the various holes. Then we teach the blockers more advanced blocking schemes, then how to run a play with all 11 players and then maybe some options. That’s a response chain—everything builds on something taught before it. Say Coach, don’t the cheerleading coaches also use response chains in teaching us new routines? Uh, sure, Joey! Many teachers and coaches of all sports and activities use response chains and reinforcements: aversive control, negative reinforcement, escape conditioning, avoidance conditioning, and other techniques. I hope I’ll never have to wear one of these prison suits for real. That is so cool— now I understand all the things that happen at practice! Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous schedule Partial schedule Fixed-ratio schedule Reinforcement depends on a specified schedule of responses. Variable-ratio schedule Number of responses needed for reinforcement changes from one time to the next. Fixed-interval schedule Reinforce first response after a predetermined amount of time has elapsed. Time interval always same. Variable-interval schedule The time at which the reinforcement becomes available changes throughout the conditioning procedure. More activity than fixedinterval Primary reinforcers . . . satisfy or reduce a basic, natural need, such as hunger. Secondary (conditioned) reinforcers conditioned reinforcers because without the conditioning process, it would be a neutral stimulus having no positive or negative value. Behavior therapy Contingency Management Used in mental hospitals and prisons—miniature system of rewards called token economies Successive approximations: start with an easy task and making it more difficult to get the same reinforcement Today I got to go pose on the beach after working out for 2 hours. Tomorrow I’ll have to work out for 2 hours, 30 minutes before posing for the ladies on the beach. Sigh. Simoncini is so buff!! What a totally HOT older man!!! Miss Becky is soooo lucky!!! Use of the Premack Principle in education: Dr. Fred Jones From book: Positive Classroom Discipline Preferred Activity Time Aversive control Unpleasant consequences or punishers. Negative reinforcement Takes away an aversive stimulus; removes unpleasant consequences. Anything to get his grubby hands off me. OK, I’ll do your stupid homework, David. All right! If I squeeze long enough, I can get what I want. I won’t let go until you promise to do my math homework for a week. Negative Reinforcement Escape conditioning causes an unpleasant event to stop. Avoidance conditioning preventing an unpleasant situation from happening. Oh boy! It’s time for another experiment. Everyone partner up—one only. And take out the rulers you were supposed to bring to class today. Next, between you and your partner decide who is the A person and who is the B person. OK. A people stay put; B people outside, away from the door. Positive punishment vs. negative punishment Positive punishment requires the application of an aversive stimulus—painful consequences reduce the likelihood of a person repeating that behavior. Omission training (negative punishment) removal of a reinforcer—parents taking away a misbehaving teen’s car keys Unlike reinforcement, punishment must be administered consistently; intermittent punishment is far less effective than punishment delivered after every undesired response Punishment vs. negative reinforcement Punishment is used to decrease a behavior or reduce its probability of recurring. Negative reinforcement—like positive reinforcement—always increases a response’s probability of occurring again Remember: positive and negative in this context means add and remove. Tierney, you are tardy for the 21st time. You’re going down! Detention!!! Who does punishment reinforce? Punishment often produces an immediate change in behavior, which, ironically, is reinforcing to the punisher and a major reason why the use of punishment is so widespread. Punishers may feel good while delivering the punishment Wow! This is heavy stuff. So, why is punishment so difficult to use effectively? 1. The power of punishment to suppress behavior disappears when the threat of punishment disappears 2. Punishment triggers escape or aggression 3. Punishment is often ineffective 4. Punishment is often applied unequally It says here that there are seven different conditions needed for punishment to work. Should be swift--immediate Should be certain—administered every time unwanted response occurs Should be limited in duration and intensity Should clearly target the behavior, not the character of the person Should be limited to the situation in which the response occurred Should not give mixed messages to the punished person—you can’t hit others, but I can hit yo Most effective is usually omission training Philip Zimbardo and the Stanford Prison Experiment Philip Zimbardo and the Stanford Prison Experiment Recruitment and Methodology Wanted to learn about behaviors and feelings of prisoners or guards Set up a phony prison in a university building Recruited male college students to participate Randomly assigned 24 participants to role of either prisoner or guard Methodology Guards instructed to make prisoners feel frustrated and not in control Prisoners arrested and booked as real prisoners Guards bullied the prisoners and began “counts”. Observe this film clip about the experiment Results Prisoners staged a rebellion on the second day Guards stepped up their harassment and treated rebellion “ringleaders” differently than the “good” prisoners Prisoners told they couldn’t leave; many became anxious Guards increased bullying tactics as they perceived prisoners to be a real threat Zimbardo and his colleagues adapted to their roles Results Everyone took on the role to which they were assigned—the experiment became very realistic Experiment ended after six days instead of two weeks Prisoners had lost their identity Conclusions Individual values and identities can break down under situational pressure where one group has more power than other groups Prisons have traditionally been considered places of punishment and rehabilitation. Zimbardo concluded that rehabilitation may be difficult. Zimbardo: “Prisons are evil places that demean humanity. . . They are as bad for the guards as they are for the prisoners B. F. Skinner Behaviorism Written 1948; first printed in 1969 Walden Pond by H. D. Thoreau Utopia: Thomas More Enclave in Ohio Work 2-4 hours; remainder follow own pursuits No possessions--communal Planners, managers, and scientists—menial tasks as well Self-contained community No competition No “thank yous” A person’s work shall not tax his strength or threaten his happiness No personal freedom yet total freedom Children conditioned from birth—communal rearing Behavioral engineering— control physical and social environment Imparting techniques of selfcontrol Education—did not teach subjects; taught techniques of thinking and learning. Most people lived in separate quarters—even husbands and wives. In groups of 1-4, determine an inappropriate behavior that a teenager or young child has. Act as if you were a team of psychologists hired by the young person’s parents to develop a strategy to stop the inappropriate behavior. Take about I sure15 do, minutes Simone. to develop a strategy You are so the muchadvice provided by employing nicer thanet your Zimbardo, al, on pp. 217-218, drawing brother! in what we have learned about operant Miss Becky, after that discussion conditioning and andthat behaviorist to earlier nastythought experiment, this point. Be certain to it’s include correct don’t you think time for another terminology. group activity. Wolfgang Kohler and Chimp Experiments Suggested that animals were not mindlessly using conditioned behaviors, but were learning by recognizing their perceptions of problems. Kohler called it insight learning. Factors that affect learning Feedback—finding out the results of an action or performance Experiment time again! I need two volunteers. Materials: bucket, blindfold, beanbags Factors that affect learning Feedback—finding out the results of an action or performance Transfer—transferring Skills you already have into appropriate responses for another skill Factors that affect learning Transfer: positive—transfer of a skill to help acquire another skill Negative transfer—a previously learned task hinders learning I say, jolly, you are driving on the wrong side of the street here in England. Factors that affect learning Practice—repetition of a task— binds responses together Physical & mental Edward Tolman and cognitive maps Cognitive learning—a form of altering behavior that involves mental processes and may result from observation or imitation. a. Cognitive maps—a mental picture of spatial relationships or relationships between events (only way to account for a rat quickly selecting an alternative route in a maze when the preferred route to the goal is blocked.) 1. Cognitive learning—a form of altering behavior that involves mental processes and may result from observation or imitation. a. Cognitive maps b. Latent learning—alteration of a behavioral tendency that is not demonstrated by an immediate, observable change in behavior. I’m not sure if I can find the doctor’s office. Wait a minute. I’ve been here before, and I remember that building. OK, now I think I know how to get there. Primary significance of Tolman’s work Its challenge to the prevailing behavioral views of Pavlov, Watson and Skinner; he showed that simple associations between stimuli and responses could not explain the behavior observed in his experiments Recent brain imaging has supported Tolman’s work; pointed to the hippocampus as the structure involved in drawing the cognitive map in the brain The Limbic System Cingulate gyrus Anterior nucleus of thalamus Thalamus Para-olfactory area Fornix Mamillary bodies of hypothalamus Hypothalamus Uncus Hippocampus Amygdala Para-hippocampal gyrus Draws cognitive Maps 1. Cognitive learning—a form of altering behavior that involves mental processes and may result from observation or imitation. With this type of learning, my fellow teachers and I must be aware of learned helplessness: too many rewards without effort, learned laziness; pain no matter how much someone tries, that person gives up. 1. Cognitive learning—a form of altering behavior that involves mental processes and may result from observation or imitation. 2. Modeling: learning by imitating others Much of teaching and coaching is modeling. Here is another example. . . Starring ME! 1. Cognitive learning—a form of altering behavior that involves mental processes and may result from observation or imitation. 2. Modeling: learning by imitating others Three types: a. Behavior of others increases the chances that we will do the same thing b. Observational learning, or imitation c. Disinhibition—watch someone else engage in a form of threatening activity without being punished, easier to engage in activity I am Dr. Albert Bandura. In 1961 I performed an experiment about social learning —the process of altering behavior by observing and imitating the behavior of others. Bobo doll Children exhibited aggressive behavior toward the bobo doll. Albert Bandura: Hypothesis = Believed we learn through observation and imitation Hypothesized that children would imitate aggressive behavior they observed Bandura’s Methodology Children watched films of adults beating Bobo dolls Three groups: aggression-rewarded, aggressionpunished, no consequences Children went into rooms with toys that they were told not to play with Bandura’s Results Children in the aggression-punished group expressed the fewest aggressive behaviors toward the Bobo dolls Children in the other two groups expressed an equal number of aggressive behaviors and were more aggressive than children in the aggression-punished group Bandura’s Experiment Children promised rewards for imitating the adult in the film Now, all three groups were equally aggressive Children had learned the aggressive behavior from the film, but those who saw the adults being punished were less likely to act aggressively Bandura’s Social Learning Theory Relates to effects of violence and other images on TV and in the movies Children imitate good and neutral behaviors as well as bad ones After our discussion of my BoBo doll experiment, and after your preparation of question 44 on the homework sheet, now it’s time for another group activity. Divide into groups of 1-4 students and list examples of pro-social and anti-social behaviors people learn from observing others. Take 10-minutes. Be prepared to share with the class. Psychic Numbing Viewers of media violence show a reduction in emotional arousal and distress when they observe violent acts Robert Rescorla and the Adaptive Value of Classical Conditioning for an Animal The crucial feature of the conditioned stimulus is its informativeness—its value in predicting the onset of the unconditioned stimulus Example: food aversions Eric Kandel and Robert Hawkins Two types of learning circuits may divide the task of learning along the same line that has long separated behavioral and cognitive psychologists Simpler circuit: mindless learning—slowly with repetition over many trials (classical and operant conditioning) More complex circuits: require conscious processing (Cognitive psychologists) Robert Sternberg and Elena L. Grigorenko Assessed students on abilities for logical, creative and practical thinking Students did best when the teaching emphasis matched their intellectual style Everyone learns better when material can be approached in more than one way (visual, verbal and hands-on) Theory of Harvard Psychology Professor, Dr. Howard Gardner Linguistic Learner The word player Logical/Mathematical Learner The Questioner The Spatial Learner The Visualizer Musical Learner The Music Lover Bodily/Kinesthetic The Mover Interpersonal Learner The Socializer Intra-personal Learner The Individual The Naturalist Learner Distinguish among and use features of the environment