Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
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Transcript Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
CHAPTER 13:
Social Influences
Social Influences
Social Perception
Social Influence
Social Relations
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Social Perception
Making Attributions
Social Perception
The processes by which we come to know
and evaluate other persons
Attribution Theory
A set of theories that describe how people
explain the causes of behavior
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Social Perception
Kelley’s Attribution Theory
For behaviors that are consistent, people make personal
attributions when consensus and distinctiveness are low.
People will make stimulus attributions when consensus
and distinctiveness are high.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Social Perception
Fundamental Attribution Error
A tendency to overestimate the impact
of personal causes of behavior and to
overlook the role of situations
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Social Perception
Fundamental Attribution Error
A simulated quiz show
gave questioners an
advantage over
contestants.
Observers and contestants
still judged questioners as
more knowledgeable.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Social Perception
Fundamental Attribution Error:
A Western Bias?
U.S. and Indian subjects
described the causes of
several behaviors.
Cultural differences were
not seen in young children.
With age, Americans made
more personal attributions
However, Indians made
more situational
attributions.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Social Perception
Forming Impressions
Mixed Evidence: Does it Extinguish or
Reinforce First Impressions?
Participants were asked to evaluate
a person’s academic potential and
had high or low expectations.
Half watched videotape of person
taking achievement test.
Without viewing the tape,
expectations influenced
evaluations.
Viewing the videotape magnified
these initial expectations.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Social Perception
Forming Impressions
Behavioral-Confirmation Process
We use our existing beliefs to interpret new
information, which affects our behavior.
This may create false support for our biases.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Social Perception
Attraction
Two important predictors of attraction are
similarity and physical attractiveness.
Mere-Exposure Effect
The attraction to a stimulus that results from
increased exposure to it
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Social Perception
Attraction
Media Influences on the Attractiveness
Stereotype
Participants watched film
clips with strong or weak
link between beauty and
goodness.
Later they judged graduate
school applications which
included photo.
Those exposed to the
stereotype favored the
attractive applicants more.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Social Influence
Social Influence as “Automatic”
The Chameleon Effect
Participants worked
with a “partner”.
Hidden cameras
recorded behavior.
Participants mimicked
their partner without
realizing it.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Social Influence
Conformity
A Classic Case of Suggestibility
Subjects in dark room
were shown a light and
while alone estimated the
distance the light moved.
In three group sessions,
they again made distance
estimations.
Subjects’ estimates
converged on a common
value thus establishing a
group norm.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Social Influence
Conformity
Line-Judgment Task Used in Asch’s Study
Subjects in a group were asked which comparison line is
the same length as the standard line.
Confederates in the group picked the wrong line.
Subjects went along with the wrong answer on 37% of
trials.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Social Influence
Conformity
Informational Influence
Conformity motivated by the belief that
others are correct
Seen in Sherif’s study
Normative Influence
Conformity motivated by a fear of social
rejection
Seen in Asch’s study
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Social Influence
Private and Public Conformity
Under conditions of low
motivation, the
difficulty of the task did
not influence
conformity.
However, when
motivated, people
conform more when the
task is difficult and less
when it is easy.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Social Influence
Group Size and Conformity
Conformity increases
with group size up to a
point.
Fifteen people had no
more impact on
conformity than did
four people.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Social Influence
Obedience to Authority
In Milgram’s studies of obedience, 65% of
participants fully obeyed the experimenter
and delivered 450 volts of electric shock.
Three factors influence obedience.
The authority
The victim
The situation
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Social Influence
Attitudes and Attitude Change
Persuasive Communications Involve:
The Source
• Credibility
• Likability
The Message
• Discrepancy
• Emotional appeal
The Audience
• Motivation
• Cognitive ability
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Social Influence
Attitudes and Attitude Change
Two Routes to Persuasion
If the central route is taken, people are influenced by
strong arguments and evidence.
If the peripheral route is used, people are influenced by
superficial cues (e.g., the attractiveness of the source).
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Social Influence
Attitudes and Attitude Change
Cognitive Dissonance Study
Behavior that conflicts with
attitudes can arouse cognitive
dissonance.
Dissonance creates tension,
which people are motivated to
reduce.
Dissonance can be decreased by
changing the attitude that
conflicts with behavior.
Group paid $1 to lie about
the boring task said they
liked it more.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Social Influence
Group Processes
Social Facilitation: The tendency for the
presence of others to enhance performance on
simple tasks and impair performance on complex
tasks.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Social Influence
Group Processes
Social Loafing
People tend to exert less
effort in group tasks for
which individual’s
contributions are
pooled.
The more people in the
group, the more each
individual’s effort
decreases.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Social Influence
Group Processes
Ways to Decrease Social Loafing
Separate each individual’s performance
from that of the group’s effort.
Make each individual’s contribution
necessary for overall group success.
Reward individual as well as group.
Increase cohesiveness of group.
Make tasks personally meaningful.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Social Influence
Groupthink
A group decision-making
style by which group
members convince
themselves that they are
correct
A group may over-emphasize
unity when members suppress
their own doubts and open
dissent is stifled by other
group members.
This can lead to lower-quality
decisions made by the group.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Social Relations
Aggression
Behavior intended to inflict harm on another
person who is motivated to avoid it
Aggression is influenced by:
• Biology (e.g., testosterone)
• Aversive stimulation (e.g., pain)
• Situational Cues (e.g., weapons)
• Media violence
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Social Relations
Aggression
The Link Between Heat and Violence
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Social Relations
Aggression
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
The theory that frustration causes
aggression
Deindividuation
A loss of individuality, often experienced in a
group, that results in a breakdown of
internal restraints against deviant behavior
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Social Relations
Altruism
Helping behavior that is motivated primarily
by a desire to benefit others, not oneself
Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis
The theory that an empathic response to a
person in need produces altruistic helping
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Social Relations
Altruism
Two Pathways to Helping
People have two reactions to someone in need:
Personal distress (guilt, anxiety, and discomfort)
Empathy (sympathy and compassion for the person)
Both selfish and altruistic motives can lead to helping
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Social Relations
The Bystander Effect
The finding that the
presence of others inhibits
helping in an emergency
Diffusion of Responsibility
A tendency for bystanders
to assume that someone else
will help
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Social Relations
A Model of Bystander Intervention
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin
Social Relations
Bystander Intervention
Cyberhelping
Individuals in an online
chat room exhibited the
bystander effect.
However,when the
individual’s name was
identified, the presence of
others did not decrease
helping as measured by
the time it took people to
help.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin