Transcript christianity - Shandong University

Christianity
 Christianity is a monotheistic religion centered on the life and
teachings of Jesus as presented in the New Testament.
 Adherents of Christianity, known as Christians, believe that Jesus is
the only begotten Son of God and the Messiah (Christ) prophesied
in the Hebrew Bible (the part of scripture common to Christianity
and Judaism).
 Christian theology claims that Jesus Christ is a teacher, the model of
a virtuous life, the revealer of God, as well as an incarnation of God,
and most importantly the savior of humanity who suffered, died,
and was resurrected to bring about salvation from sin.
 Christians maintain that Jesus ascended into heaven, and most
denominations teach that Jesus will return to judge the living and
the dead, granting everlasting life to his followers. Christians call
the message of Jesus Christ the Gospel ("good news") and hence
label the earliest written accounts of his ministry as gospels.
 Christianity is classified as an Abrahamic religion.
 Christianity began as a Jewish sect in the eastern Mediterranean,
quickly grew in size and influence over a few decades, and by the 4th
century had become the dominant religion within the Roman
Empire.
 During the Middle Ages, most of the remainder of Europe was
christianized, with Christians also being a (sometimes large)
religious minority in the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of
India. Following the Age of Discovery, through missionary work and
colonization, Christianity spread to the Americas and the rest of the
world.
 Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western
civilization at least since the 4th century. As of the early 21st
century, Christianity has between 1.5 billion and 2.1 billion
adherents, representing about a quarter to a third of the world’s
population.
1. Beliefs
 In spite of important differences of interpretation
and opinion, Christians share a set of beliefs that
they hold as essential to their faith.
1.1 Creeds
 Creeds (from Latin credo meaning "I believe") are
concise doctrinal statements or confessions, usually
of religious beliefs.
 They began as baptismal formulas and were later
expanded during the Christological controversies of
the fourth and fifth centuries to become statements
of faith.
The Apostles Creed
 The Apostles Creed (Symbolum Apostolorum) was developed
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between the second and ninth centuries.
It is the most popular creed used in worship by Western
Christians.
Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the
Creator. Each of the doctrines found in this creed can be
traced to statements current in the apostolic period.
i. belief in God the Father, Jesus Christ as the Son of God and
the Holy Spirit
ii. the death, descent into hell, resurrection, and ascension of
Christ
iii. the holiness of the Church and the communion of saints
iv. Christ’s second coming, the Day of Judgement and
salvation of the faithful.
 The Nicene Creed, largely a response to Arianism, was
formulated at the Councils of Nicaea and Constantinople in
325 and 381 respectively and ratified as the universal creed of
Christendom by the Council of Ephesus in 431.
 The Chalcedonian Creed, developed at the Council of
Chalcedon in 451, though rejected by the Oriental Orthodox
Churches, taught Christ "to be acknowledged in two natures,
inconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably": one
divine and one human, and that both natures are perfect but
are nevertheless perfectly united into one person.
 The Athanasian Creed, received in the western Church as
having the same status as the Nicene and Chalcedonian, says:
“We worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; neither
confounding the Persons nor dividing the Substance.”
 Most Christians (Roman Catholics, Orthodox and
Protestants alike) accept the use of creeds, and
subscribe to at least one of the creeds mentioned
above. A minority of Protestants, notably
Restorationists, a movement formed in the wake of
the Second Great Awakening in the 19th century
United States, oppose the use of creeds.
1.2 Jesus Christ
 The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as
the Son of God and the Messiah (Christ).
 A depiction of Jesus as a child with his mother, Mary, the
Theotokos of Vladimir (12th century).
 Christians believe that, as the Messiah, Jesus was
anointed by God as ruler and savior of humanity, and
hold that Jesus’ coming was the fulfillment of messianic
prophecies of the Old Testament.
 The core Christian belief is that, through the death and
resurrection of Jesus, sinful humans can be reconciled to
God and thereby are offered salvation and the promise of
eternal life.
 Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the
pains and temptations of a mortal man, yet he did
not sin. As fully God, he defeated death and rose to
life again.
 According to the Gospels of Matthew and Luke,
Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit and born
from the Virgin Mary.
1.3 Death and Resurrection of Jesus
 Christians consider the resurrection of Jesus to be
the cornerstone of their faith and the most important
event in human history.
 Among Christian beliefs, the death and resurrection
of Jesus are two core events on which much of
Christian doctrine and theology is based.
 The death and
resurrection of Jesus are
usually considered the
most important events in
Christian Theology,
partly because they
demonstrate that Jesus
has power over life and
death and therefore has
the authority and power
to give people eternal life.
1.4 Salvation
 Protestantism teaches that eternal salvation is a gift
that comes to an individual by God’s grace,
sometimes defined as "unmerited favor", on the basis
of one’s personal belief in and dependence on the
substitutionary death and resurrection of Jesus
Christ.
 It is the belief that one can be saved (rescued) from
sin and eternal death.
 Other concepts used in the study of how salvation is
accomplished include conversion, faith, justification,
regeneration, and others.
 The crucifixion of Jesus is explained as an atoning
sacrifice, which, in the words of the Gospel of John,
"takes away the sins of the world." One’s reception of
salvation is related to justification.
 The operation and effects of grace are understood
differently by different traditions.
1.5 Trinity
 Trinity refers to the teaching
that the one God comprises
three distinct, eternally coexisting persons; the Father
(from whom the Son and
Spirit proceed), the Son
(incarnate in Jesus Christ),
and the Holy Spirit.
 Together, these three
persons are sometimes
called the Godhead,
although there is no single
term in use in Scripture to
denote the unified Godhead.
1.5.1 Trinitarians
 Trinitarianism denotes those Christians who believe
in the concept of the Trinity. Trinity is defined as one
God in three Persons.
1.5.2 Non-trinitarians
 Nontrinitarianism refers to beliefs systems that
reject the doctrine of the Trinity.
 Various nontrinitarian views, such as adoptionism or
modalism, existed in early Christianity, leading to
the disputes about Christology.
 Nontrinitarianism later appeared again in the
Gnosticism of the Cathars in the 11th through 13th
centuries, in the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th
century, and in Restorationism during the 19th
century. Non-Trinitarians often believe in Jesus as
the Son of God, and not the same as God.
1.6 Scriptures
 Christianity regards the Bible, a collection of canonical
books in two parts (the Old Testament and the New
Testament), as authoritative.
 The Bible always includes books of the Jewish scriptures,
the Tanakh, and includes additional books and
reorganizes them into two parts: the books of the Old
Testament primarily sourced from the Tanakh (with
some variations), and the 27 books of the New Testament
containing books originally written primarily in Greek.
 The Roman Catholic and Orthodox canons include other
books from the Septuagint which Roman Catholics call
Deuterocanonical. Protestants consider these books
apocryphal.
1.6.1 Roman Catholic Interpretation
 In antiquity, two schools of exegesis developed in
Alexandria and Antioch. Alexandrine interpretation,
exemplified by Origen, tended to read Scripture
allegorically, while Antiochene interpretation
adhered to the literal sense, holding that other
meanings (called theoria) could only be accepted if
based on the literal meaning.
 Roman Catholic theology distinguishes two senses of
scripture: the literal and the spiritual.
1.6.2 Protestant Interpretation
 Protestant Christians believe that the Bible is a self-
sufficient revelation, the final authority on all
Christian doctrine, and revealed all truth necessary
for salvation.
 Protestants characteristically believe that ordinary
believers may reach an adequate understanding of
Scripture because Scripture itself is clear (or
"perspicuous"), because of the help of the Holy Spirit,
or both.
Original intended meaning
 Protestants stress the meaning conveyed by the
words of Scripture, the historical-grammatical
method.
1.7 Afterlife and Eschaton
 Most Christians believe
that human beings
experience divine
judgement and are
rewarded either with
eternal life or eternal
damnation.
 This includes the general
judgement at the
Resurrection of the dead as
well as the belief (held by
Catholics, Orthodox and
some Protestants) in a
judgement particular to the
individual soul upon
physical death.
2. Worship
 Christians assemble for communal worship on
Sunday, the day of the resurrection, though other
liturgical practices often occur outside this setting.
 Scripture readings are drawn from the Old and New
Testaments, but especially the Gospels.
 There are a variety of congregational prayers,
including thanksgiving, confession, and intercession,
which occur throughout the service and take a
variety of forms including recited, responsive, silent,
or sung.
 Worship can be varied for special events like baptisms or
weddings in the service or significant feast days.
 In the early church Christians and those yet to complete
initiation would separate for the Eucharistic part of the
worship.
 In many churches today, adults and children will
separate for all or some of the service to receive ageappropriate teaching. Such children’s worship is often
called Sunday school or Sabbath school (Sunday schools
are often held before rather than during services).
2.1 Sacraments
 In Christian belief and
practice, a sacrament is a
rite, instituted by Christ,
that mediates grace,
constituting a sacred
mystery.
 The most conventional
functional definition of a
sacrament is that it is an
outward sign, instituted by
Christ, that conveys an
inward, spiritual grace
through Christ. The two
most widely accepted
sacraments are Baptism
and the Eucharist.
2.2 Liturgical Calendar
 Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Eastern Christians, and
traditional Protestant communities frame worship
around a liturgical calendar.
 Christian groups that do not follow a liturgical
tradition often retain certain celebrations, such as
Christmas, Easter and Pentecost. A few churches
make no use of a liturgical calendar.
2.3 Symbols
 The cross, which is
today one of the most
widely recognised
symbols in the world,
was used as a Christian
symbol from the earliest
times.
 Among the symbols
employed by the
primitive Christians,
that of the fish seems to
have ranked first in
importance.
 Christians from the very beginning adorned their
tombs with paintings of Christ, of the saints, of scenes
from the Bible and allegorical groups.
 The catacombs are the cradle of all Christian art.
 Other major Christian symbols include the chi-rho
monogram, the dove (symbolic of the Holy Spirit), the
sacrificial lamb (symbolic of Christ’s sacrifice), the
vine (symbolising the necessary connectedness of the
Christian with Christ) and many others.
3. History and origins
 3.1 Early Church and Christological Councils
 Christianity began as a Jewish sect in the eastern
Mediterranean in the mid-first century.
 From the beginning, Christians were subject to
persecution. This involved punishments, including
death, for Christians such as Stephen and James, son
of Zebedee.
 Christianity was legalized in the 4th century. From at
least the 4th century, Christianity has played a
prominent role in the shaping of Western
civilization.
3.2 Early Middle Ages
 The church also entered into a long period of missionary activity and expansion
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among the former barbarian tribes. Catholicism spread among the Germanic
peoples (initially in competition with Arianism), the Celtic and Slavic peoples, the
Hungarians and the Scandinavian and Baltic peoples.
Around 500, monasticism became a powerful force throughout Europe, and gave
rise to many early centers of learning, most famously in Ireland, Scotland and Gaul,
contributing to the Carolingian Renaissance of the 9th century.
From the 7th century onwards, Islam conquered the Christian lands of the Middle
East, North Africa and much of Spain, resulting in oppression of Christianity and
numerous military struggles, including the Crusades, the Spanish Reconquista and
wars against the Turks.
The Middle Ages brought about major changes within the church. Pope Gregory the
Great dramatically reformed ecclesiastical structure and administration.
In the early 8th century, iconoclasm became a divisive issue. In the early 10th
century, western monasticism was further rejuvenated through the leadership of the
great Benedictine monastery of Cluny.
3.3 High and Late Middle Ages
 In the west, from the 11th century onward, older
cathedral schools developed into universities
Originally teaching only theology, these steadily
added subjects including medicine, philosophy and
law, becoming the direct ancestors of modern
western institutions of learning.
 From 1095 under the pontificate of Urban II, the
Crusades were launched.
 Over a period stretching from the 7th to the 13th century,
the Christian Church underwent gradual alienation,
resulting in a schism dividing it into a Western, largely
Latin branch, the Roman Catholic Church, and an
Eastern, largely Greek, branch, the Orthodox Church.
 Beginning around 1184, following the crusade brought
about by the Cathar heresy, various institutions, broadly
referred to as the Inquisition, were established with the
aim of suppressing heresy and securing religious and
doctrinal unity within Christianity through conversion
and prosecution.
3.4 Protestant Reformation and CounterReformation
 Partly in response to the Protestant
Reformation, the Roman Catholic
Church engaged in a substantial
process of reform and renewal,
known as the Counter-Reformation
or Catholic Reform.
 Christianity spread to the
Americas, Oceania, East Asia, and
sub-Saharan Africa.
 Throughout Europe, the divides
caused by the Reformation led to
outbreaks of religious violence and
the establishment of separate state
religions in Western Europe.
3.5 Christianity in the Modern Era
 In the Modern Era, Christianity was confronted with
various forms of skepticism and with certain modern
political ideologies such as liberalism, nationalism and
socialism.
 Christian commitment in Europe dropped as modernity
and secularism came into their own in Western Europe,
while religious commitments in America have been
generally high in comparison to Western Europe.
 The late 20th century has shown the shift of Christian
adherence to the Third World and southern hemisphere
in general, with western civilization no longer the chief
standard bearer of Christianity.
4. Demographics
 With an estimated number of adherents that ranges
between 1.5 billion and 2.1 billion, split into around
34,000 separate denominations, Christianity is the
world’s largest religion.
 The Christian share of the world’s population has
stood at around 33 per cent for the last hundred
years.
 It is still the predominant religion in Europe, the
Americas, the Philippines, and Southern Africa.
 In most countries in the developed world, church
attendance among people who continue to identify
themselves as Christians has been falling over the
last few decades.
 Some sources view this simply as part of a drift away
from traditional membership institutions, while
others link it to signs of a decline in belief in the
importance of religion in general.
5. Denominations
 There is a diversity of doctrines and practices among
groups calling themselves Christian. These groups are
sometimes classified under denominations, though for
theological reasons many groups reject this classification
system.
 Christianity may be broadly represented as being divided
into five main groupings: Roman Catholicism, Eastern
Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, Protestantism and
Restorationism.
5.1 Roman Oatholicism and other Catholic Groups
 The (Roman) Catholic Church is comprised of
those particular churches, headed by bishops, in
communion with the Pope, the Bishop of Rome,
as its highest authority in matters of faith,
morality and Church governance.
 The Roman Catholic Church through Apostolic
succession traces its origins to the Christian
community founded by Jesus Christ.
 Catholics maintain that the "one, holy, catholic
and apostolic church" founded by Jesus subsists
fully in the Roman Catholic Church, but also
acknowledges other Christian churches and
communities and works towards reconciliation
among all Christians.
 The Roman Catholic Church is the largest
church representing over half of all Christians
and one sixth of the world’s population.
 Various smaller
communities, such as the
Old Catholic and
Independent Catholic
Churches, include the word
Catholic in their title, and
share much in common
with Roman Catholicism
but are no longer in
communion with the See of
Rome. The Old Catholic
Church is in communion
with the Anglican
Communion.
5.2 Eastern Orthodoxy
 Eastern Orthodoxy is comprised of those churches in
communion with the Patriarchal Sees of the East, such as
the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople.
 Like the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox
Church also traces its heritage to the foundation of
Christianity through Apostolic succession and has an
episcopal structure, though the autonomy of the
individual, mostly national churches is emphasized.
 Eastern Orthodoxy is the second largest single
denomination in Christianity, with over 200 million
adherents.
5.3 Oriental Orthodoxy
 The Oriental Orthodox Churches (also called Old
Oriental Churches) are those eastern churches that
recognize the first three ecumenical councils —
Nicaea, Constantinople and Ephesus — but reject the
dogmatic definitions of the Council of Chalcedon and
instead espouse a Miaphysite christology.
5.4 Protestantism
 In the 16th century, Martin Luther, Huldrych Zwingli,
and John Calvin inaugurated what has come to be
called Protestantism.
 Most Protestant traditions branch out from the
Reformed tradition in some way.
 In addition to the Lutheran and Reformed branches
of the Reformation, there is Anglicanism after the
English Reformation.
 The oldest Protestant groups separated from the
Roman Catholic Church in the 16th century
Protestant Reformation, followed in many cases by
further divisions.
 Estimates of the total number of Protestants are very
uncertain.
 A special grouping are the Anglican churches
descended from the Church of England and
organised in the Anglican Communion.
 Some Christians who come out of the Protestant
tradition identify themselves simply as "Christian",
or "born-again Christian"; they typically distance
themselves from the confessionalism and/or
creedalism of other Christian communities by calling
themselves "non-denominational" — often founded
by individual pastors, they have little affiliation with
historic denominations.
5.5 Restorationism
 Restorationism is composed of various unrelated churches that
believe they are restoring the original church of Jesus Christ and not
reforming any of the churches existing at the time of their perceived
restorations.
 They teach that the other divisions of Christianity have introduced
defects into Christianity, which is known as the Great Apostasy.
 Additionally, there are the following groups: Christadelphians,
Churches of Christ with 2.6 million members, Disciples of Christ
with 800,000 members, and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latterday Saints, the largest denomination of the Latter Day Saint
movement with over 13 million members.
 Though Restorationists have some superficial similarities, their
doctrine and practices vary significantly.
6. Ecumenism
 In the 20th century Christian ecumenism advanced
in two ways. One way was greater cooperation
between groups
 The other way was institutional union with new
United and uniting churches.
 Steps towards reconciliation on a global level were
taken in 1965 by the Roman Catholic and Orthodox
churches mutually revoking the excommunications
that marked their Great Schism in 1054.