Transcript Ch. 15: Architecture

Chapter 15 – Architecture
Thinking Ahead:
1.
How do the columns of the three Greek architectural orders differ?
2.
What advantages did the arch afford the ancient Romans?
3.
What architectural innovations led to skyscraper contruction?
4.
What are some of the principles of green architecture?
Philip Johnson and John Brugee, College of Architecture, University of Houston,
1983-85.
This building is considered
postmodern, because it
celebrates many different
architectural styles. A
structure resembling a
Greek temple rests on top.
The main building
resembles an Italian villa
from the Renaissance.
Claude-Nicolas Ledoux, House of Education, 1773-79.
This drawing represents a plan for a House of Education building in France, which
was never built. This drawing provided the inspiration for the College of
Architecture at the University of Houston.
Philip Johnson and John Brugee, College of Architecture, University of Houston,
1983-85.
The atrium that sits underneath
the colonnade on the roof
provides a cool space to escape
the hot Texas sun. It exemplifies
how architecture is largely a
product of its environment.
Buildings and spaces are
designed to work with the
surrounding climate and terrain.
Environment and Technology
• Each example of architecture depends on two different factors and their
interrelation: environment and technology.
• Environment is the distinct landscape characteristics of the local site. For
example, a building designed to work well in the winters of Alaska must
take a very different environment into account than a building designed
for the South American Amazon.
• Technology refers to the materials and methods available to a given
culture. We have an expansive list of choices for technology today, but
this was not always the case. Different types of structures become
possible with different technologies.
Thomas Coram, View of Mulberry House and Street, c. 1800. Oil on paper.
This painting represents
slave housing in South
Carolina in the 18th
century. These houses are
very similar to ones found
from the same time
period in West Africa. The
similar climate of the two
areas required a similar
structure. The tall roofs
trap hot air, so the living
space is filled with cooler
air.
Walls that will hold up a roof:
• The basic technological challenge faced by architecture is to build upright
walls and put a roof over the empty space they enclose. Walls may use
one of two basic structural systems: the shell system or the skeleton-andskin system.
• The shell system is when one basic building material provides both the
structural support and the outside covering of the building.
• The skeleton-and-skin system consists of basic interior frame (the
skeleton) that supports the more fragile outer covering (the skin).
• Examples of the shell system. One basic building
material provides both the structural support and
the outside covering of the building
• Top left: Pyramids at Menkaure (c. 2470 BCE),
Khafre (c. 2500 BCE), and Khufu (c. 2530 BCE).
• Top right: The Lion Gate, Mycenae, Greece, 1250
BCE.
• Bottom: Corner of the First Temple of Hera,
Paestum, Italy, c. 550 BCE.
Examples of the skeleton-and-skin system. It would be impossible for glass
walls to hold up such large buildings. The fragile glass exterior is the skin that
surrounds the skeleton of reinforced-concrete and steel.
Tensile strength and technology:
• The span between the elements of the supporting structure (walls or
columns, for example) is determined by the tensile strength of the roof
material.
• Tensile strength is the ability of a building material to span horizontal
distances without support and without buckling in the middle. The greater
the tensile strength of the material, the wider its potential span.
• Almost all technological advances in the history of architecture depend on
either the invention of new ways to distribute weight or the discovery of new
materials with greater tensile strength.
- The tensile strength of the stone used in the ancient
Greek temple is fairly weak. Note how short the span
of the lintel is in between each column.
- The Roman Pantheon, with it’s large concrete dome
(top left) distributes the weight differently, allowing
for a far greater span on the ceiling, and more uninterrupted space on the interior.
- The Houston Astrodome uses more newly discovered
materials along with superior weight distribution to
achieve an amazing span across the interior of the
space.
We will examine the following architectural
technologies:
• Load-bearing construction
• Post-and-lintel construction
• Arches, vaults, and domes
• Cast iron construction
• Frame construction
• Steel and reinforced concrete construction
Load-bearing Construction
• Load-bearing: In architecture, this is a construction method where the
walls bear the weight of the roof. This is achieved by piling or stacking any
material (for example: stones, bricks, mud, and straw) right up to the roof
level. Taller buildings that use this method (such as the ancient Egyptian
pyramids) would require incredibly thick walls at the bottom of the
structure, in order to support the weight of the building.
Pyramids at Menkaure (c. 2470 BCE), Khafre (c. 2500 BCE), and Khufu (c. 2530 BCE).
Limestone.
The architecture of early civilizations was mainly designed to imitate natural forms.
The true meaning of the pyramids in Egypt is unknown, but many scholars believe
they imitate the sun’s rays coming down to Earth, and would serve as a connection to
the Egyptian Sun God Re.
This image shows a diagram with a cross-sectional view of the Great Pyramid’s walls. Note
how thick the walls are, in order to hold up such a great weight of stone, and not cave in,
in load-bearing construction.
Architectural Simulation: Mastaba to Pyramid
Ziggurat, Ur, c. 2100 BCE. Fired brick over mud brick core.
Load-bearing construction.
The shapes of these buildings in ancient Mesopotamia are wider and flatter than the
Egyptian pyramids, suggesting the foothills that lead up to mountains. Mountains
held special significance, as the Sumerians believed that mountaintops were the
source of water, as well as the dwelling place of the gods.
Post-and-Lintel Construction
• Post-and-lintel construction: In architecture, this is a system of building in
which two posts support a crosspiece, or a lintel, that spans the distance
between them.
• Post-and-lintel construction is fundamental to all Greek architecture.
• The posts are known as columns, and the rows of columns set at regular
intervals around their buildings are known as colonnades.
Architectural Simulation: Post and Lintel Construction
The Lion Gate, Mycenae, Greece, 1250 BCE.
The walls are load-bearing
construction, but the gate itself is
post-and-lintel construction.
Corner of the First Temple of Hera,
Paestum, Italy, c. 550 BCE.
This temple was built with post-andlintel construction. A row of columns
is called a colonnade.
Notice how the columns are not solid
pieces of stone. They are made of
several pieces, called drums. The
grooves that are carved into the
stone are called fluting.
The slight swelling of the columns is
referred to as entasis.
Parthenon. 447–438 BCE. Pentelic marble. 111 × 237 ft. at base
Notice the
colonnades holding
up the lintels to
form the “roof.”
Architectural Simulation: Greek Orders
James Stuart. The Greek Orders, from The Antiquities of Athens. London, 1794.
Maidens and Stewards, fragment of the Panathenaic Procession, from the
east frieze of the Parthenon, Acropolis, Athens, 442-438 BCE. Marble, height
approx. 43 in.
Low relief: although the figures look round, they are still fairly flat. Showing
the human figures from a three-quarter angle allows them to “turn back” in
space, allowing them to appear deeper than they actually are.
Arches, Vaults, and Domes
Round arches, barrel vaults, and domes: innovations by the ancient Romans.
These were all made possible by the Roman invention of concrete.
•
Ancient Romans used colonnades in much of their architecture, which they
learned from the ancient Greeks, but they perfected the use of the arch.
•
Round arch: A round arch is a curved, often semicircular architectural form that
spans an opening or space built of wedge-shaped blocks, with a keystone centered
at the top. A row of continuous arches is called an arcade.
•
Barrel vault: A barrel vault is a masonry (stone) roof constructed on the principle
of the arch. It is essentially a long series of arches stacked against one another, like
a tunnel.
•
Dome: This is a roof that is generally in the shape of a hemisphere, or half-globe.
The Romans perfected the use of the dome.
Architectural Simulation: Round Arch
Architectural Simulation: Barrel and groin vaults
Round arch.
Pont du Gard, near Nîmes, France. Late 1st century BCE – early 1st century CE. Height
180 ft.
Romans revolutionized built environments with their perfection of the round arch,
which allowed them to make structures with a much larger span than was possible
with post-and-lintel construction. Several arches lined up against one another, as seen
here, is called an arcade.
Watch the Video: Pont du Gard (Roman Aqueduct)
The Colosseum, Rome, 72-80 CE.
We can see rows of arcades from the outside, but barrel vaults and groin vaults help
expand the space inside. This is an example of an amphitheatre, or double theatre,
which refers to two half-round theatres that have been combined into one large one.
The Romans invented this type of building.
Architectural Panorama:
Colosseum (ROME, ITALY, 72-80)
Pantheon, Rome, 117-125 CE. Interior view, left. Exterior view, right.
The Romans were the first to perfect the dome. Note how the front of the building uses post-and-lintel
construction at its entrance. In the interior, the building’s only source of illumination is the oculus.
Architectural
Panorama:
Pantheon
(ROME, ITALY,
c. 118-128)
Pointed arches in Gothic architecture…
•
The architectural innovations of the Romans were used for large public buildings
for centuries. In Europe, about 1150 CE, the Gothic architectural style began to
develop.
•
The use of pointed arches appeared, rather than rounded ones. The pointed arch
is not semicircular, but rather it rises more steeply to a point at its top.
•
The height of a rounded arch is determined by its width, but the height of a
pointed arch can readily be extended by straightening the curves upwards into a
point, with the weight of the ceiling descending much more directly down the
wall.
•
Pointed arches produced an effect of amazing height and space inside Gothic
churches.
Amiens Cathedral, France, begun 1220.
Look at the incredible sense of height
achieved by using the pointed arch.
Pointed arches were primarily used in
Gothic cathedrals, both in arcades, and
in long complicated barrel vaults, as
seen here. This type of vaulting in Gothic
architecture is referred to as rib vaults.
Moses window, Abbey Church of Saint-Denis,
Saint-Denis, France. 1140–44.
The emergence of light and color reflected through
the enormous stained glass windows transforms
the interior of this cathedral into a transcendental
religious experience.
Abbey Church of Saint-Denis, Saint-Denis, France. 1140–44.
The need for flying buttresses…
• All arches tend to spread outward, creating the risk of collapse. Early on,
Romans learned to support the sides of the arch to counteract this lateral
thrust.
• In the great Gothic cathedrals, necessary support was provided by building
a series of arches on the outside of the building, whose thrusts would
balance out and counteract the outward force of the large interior arches.
Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Paris, 1211-1290.
Look how the flying buttresses support the
outside Cathedral walls, but at the same time
they appear light and delicate. They do not let
the viewer focus on how heavy the stone is,
because they do not appear bulky.
Architectural Panorama: Cathedral of Notre
Dame, Paris (PARIS, FRANCE, ca. 1155-ca. 1250)
Cast-Iron Construction
• Until the 19th century (1800s), the history of architecture was determined
by innovations in the ways to use the same materials (mostly stone).
• In the 19th century, iron, a material that had been known for thousands of
years, but had never been used in architecture, absolutely transformed
the way building was done.
• Engineers discovered that by adding carbon to iron, they could create a
much more rigid and strong material: cast iron.
Gustave Eiffel, Eiffel Tower, 1887-89.
Height of the tower is 1,051 feet.
Iron was first employed in architecture in
the 19th century, transforming the build
environment. The incredible strength of
cast iron allows for maximum rigidity with
minimum weight.
This structure demonstrates the possibility
of building a structure of great height
without any load bearing walls. It marks
the beginning of the skeleton-and-skin
system of building.
Frame Construction
• Wood-frame construction: A true skeleton-and-skin building method,
commonly used in domestic architecture.
• The mass production of the common nail, together with improved
methods and standardization in the process of milling lumber, led to a
revolution in home building techniques.
• Wood-frame construction is inexpensive and relatively easy.
• Truss: In architecture, a triangular framework that because of its rigidity,
can span much wider areas than a single wooden beam.
These are diagrams of wood-frame construction, which is the basis for most
domestic architecture. The diagram on the right shows a truss. The
triangular structure is very rigid, and can span a much wider area than a
single wooden beam.
Wood-frame construction is the foundation for American domestic
architecture. Note how the doors and windows are built into place using
post-and-lintel building techniques – Postmodern
Architects paying attention to the environment of each location
left: Massachusetts – brick provides insulation and protection against New England’s
severe winters.
right: Louisiana – plastered and painted white to provide cool insulation in the hot and
humid summers.
Steel and Reinforced Concrete Construction
•
Reinforced concrete: Concrete in which steel reinforcement bars, or rebars, are
placed to both strengthen and make concrete less brittle. This, combined with
steel beams, led to the creation of the modern skyscraper.
•
The sheer strength of steel makes the modern skyscraper a reality. Walls no longer
have to be load-bearing, or incredibly thick at the base in order to support the
building.
•
(For example, without the use of reinforced concrete and steel, the walls at the
bottom of a 16-story building would need to be six feet thick!)
•
With skyscrapers you can have large numbers of exterior windows and height.
Louis H. Sullivan. Bayard (Condict) Building,
New York. 1897–98.
Large numbers of exterior windows
Ornamental detail with elaborate, organic
forms in nature.
For Sullivan, the function of the building was to
elevate the spirit of those who worked in it.
Frank Lloyd Wright. Robie House, South Woodlawn, Chicago, Illinois. 1909.
The first truly modern architect
Like Sullivan, Wright believed in uniting architectural design and nature.
This is an example of one of
Wright’s Prairie Houses
Note how the building reflects
the flat expanses of the
Midwestern prairie landscape
of Illinois.
Cantilevered roof – a
horizontal form supported on
one end and jutting out into
space on the other; was made
possible by steel-andreinforced concrete
construction.
Allows for one to be
simultaneously inside and
outside.
Frank Lloyd Wright. Fallingwater, Kaufmann House, Bear Run, Pennsylvania. 1936.
Note how the building
reflects the cliffs of a
Pennsylvania ravine.
Le Corbusier, Perspective drawing for Domino Housing Project., 1914.
The combination of a steel framework with reinforced concrete floors
provided the foundation for the modern skyscraper.
Floors made of reinforced concrete; steel rebars
Le Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret. Villa Savoye, Poissy-sur-Seine, France. 1928–
30.
With steel-and-reinforcedconcrete construction,
windows, walls, and even
stairwells can be moved to any
location within the structural
frame. Open interior space.
Ludwig Miës van der Rohe and Philip
Johnson, Seagram Building, New York City,
1958.
Le Corbusier and Mies van der Rohe are
innovators of the International Style - 20th
century style of architecture marked by its
almost austere geometric simplicity
Primary geometric forms – rectangles,
squares, etc.
Ludwig Miës van der Rohe.
Farnsworth House, Fox
River, Plano, Illinois. 1950.
Euro Saarinen, TWA Terminal, John F. Kennedy International Airport, New York, 1926
Innovative architecture.
Rejecting the geometric International Style. This shows an incredibly different style
than the Seagram Building, emphasizing curves and strong contrasts. It is defined by
the strong contrast of openness, provided by the broad expanse of windows, and the
sculptural mass of the reinforced concrete walls and roof.
Architect is looking at the environment – an airport; two huge concrete wings are
symbolic of flight.
Frank Gehry, Guggenheim Museum Bilbao, Spain, 1997.
Innovative architecture - demonstrates architectural experimentation.
The incredibly sculpted architecture creates fluid surfaces that make you forget
that you are looking at a building.
Jean Nouvel/Ateliers. Jean Nouvel with b720 Arquitectos, Torre Agbar, Barcelona.
2005.
Innovative architecture- looks like a bullet.
Reinforced-concrete crowned by a glass-and-steel dome. Multicolored façade of
aluminum panels
Adrian Smith and Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, Burj Khalifa, Dubai, United
Arab Emirates, 2010.
The Burj, or central tower, is currently the tallest free-standing structure in
the world, at 2,684 feet (more than twice as high as the Empire State
Building).
Tom Wills-Wright, Burj Al-Arab, Dubai, United Arab Emirates, 1999.
This luxury hotel sits on its own island in the Persian Gulf like an enormous
wind-filled sail (again the architect is looking at the environment). The glass
tower’s windows are covered by a fabric that reflects over 70% of the light
and heat from the outside.
A cantilevered helipad doubles as the world’s
highest tennis court, extending from the front
of the building from the 28th floor.