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Life Span Development The School Years: Biosocial Development – Chapter 11 July 8, 2004 Class #9 A Healthy Time Middle childhood, ages 7 to 11, is generally a happy, easy time children usually healthy and self-reliant Typical Size and Shape Contributing Factors to Variations in physique nutrition, genetic factors, gender undernutrition, which does not disappear with age or a nation’s wealth, correlated with less growth and more illness Childhood Obesity Overweight—20% above ideal weight for height Obesity—30% over ideal weight for height - about one-third of American children obese psychological, physical, and medical problem Obesity Why do some children become seriously overweight? Emotional problems Depression Anxiety Sedentary lifestyle Too much TV and not enough exercise Genetics Higher set point Poor quality food Fast-foods Very high percentage of fat in our foods Chronic Illnesses For the most part, middle childhood is the period of life when chronic illness is least common. An exception to this is asthma… Asthma—chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways; affects between 10% and 20% of schoolage children in North America three times as common as 20 years ago figures expected to double again by 2020 Asthma is the most common medical problem that causes absences from school Possible Causes genes on chromosomes 2, 11, 12, 13, and 21 exposure to allergens Prevention of Asthma Primary prevention: proper ventilation; decreased pollution; eradication of cockroaches; safe outdoor play spaces Secondary prevention: ridding house of allergens; breast-feeding, if genetic history is known Tertiary prevention: care after ailment is recognized; in doctor’s office, hospital Advances in Middle Childhood Brain reaches adult size at age 7 Hemispheric specialization makes brain more efficient overall Changes become apparent in both motor and cognitive development Rapid growth rate of school-age children leads them to be better able to control their bodies and emotions Motor Skills Brain maturation is a key factor in decrease of reaction time—length of time it takes to react to a stimulus older child has faster reaction time than younger child Child’s motor habits benefit from connections formed in brain corpus callosum continues to mature motor abilities advanced through play rough-and-tumble play may help to regulate and coordinate frontal lobes of brain may also help in interpretation and in providing emotional regulation Brain and Intelligence Cognition is improved this advance reflected on tests Tests of Ability Intellectual skills - Aptitude—potential to learn or achieve - IQ test—test to measure intellectual aptitude - Achievement—what a person has learned Achievement Tests Measure reading ability, math knowledge, scientific knowledge, and writing skills Two highly regarded IQ tests Stanford-Binet Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children designed for school-age children A brief history of intelligence testing •Alfred Binet (1905) introduced the first modern intelligence test, which directly tested higher psychological processes (real abilities & practical judgments) • i.e. picture naming, rhyme production, weight ordering, question answering, word definition. A brief history of intelligence testing Binet (1905): Can French children doing poorly in school be identified? Developed a set of intellectual tasks that became model for current intelligence tests Binet’s assumptions: Reasoning, thinking, and problem-solving all depend on intelligence Children’s mental abilities increase with age Mental Age Binet and his colleague Theodore Simon determined a child’s mental age… A chronological age typical of a given level of performance A brief history of intelligence testing Lewis Terman (1916) created the StanfordBinet Scale, which incorporated old items from the Binet scale, plus some new items It was poorly standardized, on 1000 children and 400 adults who were not selected with care The 1937 revision of the scale was improved as it was standardized on a carefully selected population, of 100 children in each six-month interval from 6 to 14 years, and 100 in each year from 15 to 18, with control of sex, selected from 17 different communities However, they were all white and above average SES The test was re-normed in 1960 and 1972, and revised completely in 1986 (SB-IV) Stanford-Binet Test Developed by Terman in 1916 to determine a person’s intelligence quotient, or IQ Based on Binet’s test of intelligence IQ = (Mental Age/Chronological Age) * 100 Scoring method allow the ranking of people based on their IQ Wechsler Intelligence Scale For Children Test items are varied to access diverse abilities See examples of test items next three slides Sample Items from the WISC-III PICTURE COMPLETION What part is missing from this picture? Simulated items similar to those in the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Adults and Children. Copyright 1949, 1955, 1974, 1981, 1990 by The Psychological Corporation. Reproduced by permission. All rights reserved. "Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children" and "WISC-III" are registered trademarks of The Psychological Corporation. Sample Items from the WISC-III PICTURE ARRANGEMENT These pictures tell a story, but they are in the wrong order. Put them in the right order so that they tell a story. Simulated items similar to those in the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Adults and Children. Copyright 1949, 1955, 1974, 1981, 1990 by The Psychological Corporation. Reproduced by permission. All rights reserved. "Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children" and "WISC-III" are registered trademarks of The Psychological Corporation. Sample Items from the WISC-III Block Design Put the blocks together to make this picture. Simulated items similar to those in the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Adults and Children. Copyright 1949, 1955, 1974, 1981, 1990 by The Psychological Corporation. Reproduced by permission. All rights reserved. "Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children" and "WISC-III" are registered trademarks of The Psychological Corporation. Today’s IQ The test-takers performance relative to others his same age Today’s IQ For IQ tests today, points earned for each correct answer are summed. Total score is compared to scores earned by other people. The average score at each age level is assigned the IQ value of 100 Intelligence Quotient, or IQ score reflects one’s relative standing within a population of one’s age Are all intelligence tests the same? Ideally IQ scores obtained with different instruments should be identical In reality, the instrument makes a difference: A Wechsler IQ may not be identical to a Stanford-Binet IQ It is important to specify the instrument Making sure things are consistent… Reliability Degree of consistency or repeatability Test-Retest Reliability Experimenters will often retest people using either the same test or another form of it Making sure things are meaningful… Validity Are we measuring what we intend to measure? Predictive (Criterion) Validity How well does the test predict future ability? Does the SAT accurately predict college grades? Does the GRE accurately predict grad school performance? Content Validity Are the test questions meaningful? Do they relate to what is attempting to be measured? Criticisms of IQ Testing Quite reliable in predicting school achievement, and somewhat reliable in predicting adult career attainment difficult to measure potential without achievement does not consider rate of development, culture, family, school, genes in comparing IQ to achievement, learning disabilities may be noted Criticisms of IQ Testing Standard IQ tests measure only linguistic and logical-mathematical ability no measure for other types of intelligence Maybe intelligence comes in different packages… Gardner (1993) describes 8 distinct intelligences linguistic logical-mathematical musical spatial bodily-kinesthetic interpersonal (social understanding) intrapersonal (self-understanding) naturalistic Defining intelligence Sternberg (1996) suggests 3 types of intelligence academic (IQ and achievement) creative (evidenced by imaginative endeavors) practical (seen in everyday interactions) Factor analystic studies (Sternberg, 1981) of informal views of an 'ideally intelligent' person capture these characteristics Sternberg’s Theory of Intelligence Saul Kassin, Psychology. Copyright © 1995 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Reprinted by permission. Children with Special Needs Some children, because of a physical or mental disability, require special help in order to learn—children with special needs 13% of all U.S. schoolchildren in 2000 individual education plan (IEP) legally required document specifying a series of educational goals for each child with special needs Developmental Psychopathology Field in which knowledge of normal development is applied to the study and treatment of psychological disorders Offers 4 lessons applicable to all children abnormality is normal disability changes over time adulthood may be better or worse than present diagnosis depends on social context Pervasive Developmental Disorders Severe problems that affect many aspects of psychological growth Autistic Disorder Autism is a complex developmental disorder that appears in the first 3 years of life it may be diagnosed much later It affects the brain’s normal development of social and communication skills Autism is a spectrum that encompasses a wide continuum of behavior Very rare 1 out of 2000 children Sex difference Boys 4 times more likely to have this General Symptoms Impaired social interactions Impaired verbal and nonverbal communication Restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior The symptoms may vary from quite mild to quite severe Often accompanied by mental retardation Affected areas… Some combination of the following areas may be affected in varying degrees: Communication Inability to start or sustain a conversation; language develops slowly or not at all; repeating words; reversing pronouns; nonsense rhyming; communicating with gestures instead of words; short attention span Social Interaction Lack of empathy; difficulty making friends; withdrawn; prefers to spend time alone rather than with others; less responsive to social cues such as eye contact or smiles Affected areas… Sensory Impairment Heightened or decreased sensitivities to sight, hearing, touch, smell, or taste; mouthing of objects; rubbing of surfaces; diminished response to pain; lack of startle to loud noises. Play Decreased pretend or imaginative play; decreased imitation of others’ actions; preferring solitary or ritualistic play Affected areas… Behaviors Repetitive body movements strong need for sameness intense tantrums very narrow interests obsessive interests in a single item, idea, activity or person apparent lack of common sense may show aggression to others or self may be overactive or very passive Typical Scenario Most parents with autistic children suspect that something is wrong by the time the child is 18 months old and seek help by the time the child is 2 Those with autism typically have difficulties in verbal and non-verbal communication, social interactions, and pretend play though the diagnosis is usually not made until long after that In some, aggression toward others or oneself may be present People with autism may perform repeated body movements, show unusual attachments to objects, or have unusual distress to changes in routines Individuals may also experience sensitivities in the senses of sight, hearing, touch, smell, or taste Etiology In the past, autism was thought to be a mental illness caused by bad parenting… This destructive idea has been disproved We now know autism to be a physical condition linked to abnormal biology and neurochemistry in the brain The exact causes of these abnormalities remain unknown But this is a very active area of research Biological Factors Genetic factors are involved Language and cognitive abnormalities are more common in relatives of autistic children Chromosomal abnormalities and other neurological problems are also more common in families with autism In the general population, autism affects up to 0.2% of children, but the risk of having a second autistic child increases more than 50 times -- to 10-20% An identical twin is far more likely to also have autism than would be a fraternal twin or another sibling. Signs and Tests Routine developmental screening should be performed for all children Further evaluation is warranted if there is concern on the part of the clinician or the parents This is particularly true whenever a child fails to meet any of the following language milestones babbling by 12 months gesturing (e.g., pointing, waving bye-bye) by 12 months single words by 16 months two-word spontaneous phrases by 24 months (not just echoing) the loss of any language or social skills at any age Treatment Intensive, appropriate early intervention greatly improves the outcome for most young children with autism Most programs will build on the interests of the child in a highly structured schedule of constructive activities Visual aids are often helpful Treatment is most successful when geared toward the individual’s particular needs An experienced specialist or team should design the individualized program Prognosis Autism remains a challenging condition for individuals and their families, but the prognosis today is much better than it was a generation ago At that time, most people with autism were placed in institutions Today, with appropriate therapy, many of the symptoms of autism can be improved, though most people will have some symptoms throughout their lives Most people with autism are able to live with their families or in the community. Autism varies from quite mild to quite severe The prognosis for individuals depends on the degree of their disabilities and on the level of therapy they receive Asperger’s Disorder A condition where young children experience impaired social interactions and develop limited repetitive patterns of behavior Motor milestones may be delayed and clumsiness is often observed Similar to autism in that these individuals have serious problems with social skills and very restricted interests and activities Unlike autism in that these individuals have no problems with communication and do not have the mental retardation that often accompanies autism Asperger’s Disorder The child with Asperger’s disorder shows below-average nonverbal communication gestures fails to develop peer relationships has an inability to express pleasure in other people’s happiness lacks the ability to return social and emotional feelings About 3 per 1000 children have Asperger’s disorder It appears to be more common in boys The cause is unknown There are likely genetic factors, but there are some theories which center around pre-natal infections Other Symptoms Child often “connects” to favorite topics but not to people They have intense interest in a limited number of topics and they focus all their attention on these Lack of spontaneous seeking to share enjoyment, interests or achievements with other people Clumsiness Other Symptoms Inflexibility in adhering to specific routines or rituals Repetitive finger flapping, twisting or whole body movements There is no general delay in language There is no delay in cognitive development, or in the development of age-appropriate self-help skills, or in curiosity about the environment Treatment For patients with severe impairment, treatment is similar to the treatment for autistic disorder Prognosis As with most developmental disorders, the long-term outcome and prognosis will vary according to the nature of the underlying problem, and the interventions used to support continued development Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) ADHD most commonly diagnosed behavioral disorder of childhood Symptoms include developmentally inappropriate levels of attention, concentration, activity, distractibility, and impulsivity ADHD is estimated to affect 5-10% of school aged children Gender difference: M>F (about 4 to 1) Researchers are not sure why ADHD affects more boys than girls One possibility is that females with ADHD have less aggression than males which may explain why fewer are diagnosed ADHD Occurs typically before age 4 and invariably before age 7 The peak age for referrals between 8 and 10 years old Most children diagnosed as having ADHD at school age exhibited delays in motor development and tend to have brief attention spans and usually have higher activity levels than normal Diagnostic Criteria for ADHD Six or more of following symptoms if inattention have persisted for at least six months to a degree that is maladaptive and inconsistent with developmental level See next two slides Criteria of ADHD Often fidgets with hands and feet or squirms in seat. Has difficulty remaining seated. Is easily distracted by external stimuli. Has difficulty awaiting turns in games or groups. Often blurts out answers to questions. Has difficulty following instructions. Has difficulty sustaining attention in tasks or play. Often shifts from one unfinished activity to another. Criteria of ADHD Has difficulty playing quietly Often talks excessively Often interrupts or intrudes on others Often does not seem to listen to what is being said Often loses things necessary for tasks or for school Often engages in physically dangerous activities Well, we know what doesn’t cause it… ADHD isn't caused by bad parenting But a disorganized home life and school environment can make the symptoms worse ADHD isn't caused by a diet that contains too much sugar, too little sugar or aspartame (brand name: Nutrasweet) It isn't caused by food additives, food colorings, food allergies or other allergies, or a lack of vitamins It also isn't caused by too much TV, fluorescent lights or video games Etiology Cause of ADHD is not clear But there is strong evidence that children with ADHD do not make enough chemicals in key areas in the brain that are responsible for organizing thought (in prefrontal cortex) There appears to be too low levels of dopamine and norepinephrine Low levels of neurotransmitters… Interestingly, low levels of brain activity lead to high levels of behavioral activity and rapid shifts in attention It appears that the areas of the brain that are underactive are responsible for the inhibition of motor activity and shifts in attention Other possibilities… Genetic vulnerability Teratogens Postnatal damage e.g., lead poisoning Links with Learning Disabilities Many people believe that children with ADHD also have learning disabilities and vice versa A learning disability is generally defined as a twoyear delay in grade level in either spelling, reading, or math Forty percent of children diagnosed with ADHD have learning disabilities, and 15 to 20 percent of learning-disabled children have ADHD Dyslexia—unusual difficulty with reading is the most common learning disability The disorders overlap somewhat, but keep in mind that not all children with ADHD have difficulties in school In fact, some are in gifted and talented programs Drug Treatments Stimulant medications such as Ritalin, Dexedrine, and Cylert help normalize a child's behavior These drugs have a calming effect when used to treat ADHD They are not a cure… Note: Antidepressants and anti-anxiety meds have been used but without much success not to mention the sideeffects that go along with these as have some lowpotency neuroleptics No evidence of long-term side effects… Initially these stimulants can cause problems with sleep and decreased appetite Usually relatively minor and fade with time Some evidence that Ritalin can slow growth in a small percentage of children Research findings on this side effect are inconsistent Behavior Modification Behavior modification techniques often make use of positive stimuli to change undesirable For example, parents of young children are taught that it is better to impose a "time-out" or to send a child to his or her room than to yell and scream at the youngster Rewarding ADHD children with "smiley" faces or stars also goes over well with younger children As children grow older, the behavior modification techniques must become more sophisticated Educating Children with Special Needs Mainstreaming—federal policy under which children with special needs must be taught in the least restrictive environment —which usually means placing them with other children in the general classroom Educating Children with Special Needs Least restrictive environment (LRE)— legally required school setting that offers children with special needs as much freedom as possible to benefit from the instruction available to other children; often, in the general classroom Educating Children with Special Needs Some schools set aside a resource room where children with special needs spend part of the day with a specially trained teacher equipped to work with the disability Educating Children with Special Needs Inclusion—a policy under which learningdisabled children are included in the regular class, but are supervised by a specially trained teacher or para-professional for all or part of the day leading toward integration: each child within a regular classroom is a vital part of that social and educational group Conclusion Parents should be taught specific ways to encourage their children to show appropriate behavior If problem undiagnosed, intervention may not begin when it should and may also be less effective Both home and school context make a difference