Transcript Cultural Perspective of Africa

AFRICANS
Chapter 8
Cultural Perspective of Africa
2nd largest continent
in the world
 Estimated pop 1 billion
 Much of the climate is
tropical
 Rainfall varies widely
 Varied geography
 Sahara Desert
 Many ethnic groups
 Strong cultural identity
 Long history of conflict
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History in the US
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Enslavement from 1619 until 1862
◦ Most from West Africa
◦ Slave importation ended in 1809
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Emancipation came with ratification of
13th amendment in 1865
◦ Exploitation continued
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Many moved to the northeast or the
Midwest about 1900
◦ Migration continued north for many years
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Civil Rights in the 1960’s
◦ Attempts to reverse past discrimination
Current Demographics
About half in south
More movement to the south now than to the
north
 Live in African American or Hispanic
neighborhoods
 Few immigrants now
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◦ 1/3 from West Africa
 Nigeria and Ghana
◦ Sudanese and Eritreans escaping war
◦ Others from ethnic and civil conflicts
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< 1% from Caribbean or Central American
descent
Socioeconomic Status
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70% making steady economic progress
Black middle class is growing
Economic gap narrowing
Poverty rate, unemployment rate still double
High school graduation rates lower
Strong ethnic identify
Geographically, politically, and
socioeconomically diverse
Recent immigrants often come for
educational opportunity and/or are well
educated
Worldview: Religion
Spirituality integral to African tribal society
 Conversion to Christianity was slow in US
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◦ First black church in 1770’s in SC
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Today church represents sanctuary
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More than 75% belong to a church
National Baptist Convention of the U.S.A. is largest
Methodist Episcopal
Pentecostal
Recent immigrants
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Muslim
Protestant Christian
Eastern Orthodox
Half of African population believed to participate in
traditional tribal religions or combined faiths
Worldview: Family
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Extended family important since tribal
times
◦ Disrupted during slave period
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43% of families headed by women
Multigenerational homes common
Children are highly valued
African societies today are highly
patriarchal
◦ Women subservient
◦ Arranged marriages
◦ Concern over loss of traditional values in US
Traditional Health Beliefs
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African’s view life as energy rather then
matter
◦ Forces influence life events
◦ Individuals can influence these forces
towards good and evil
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Health maintained through harmony
Illness is caused when someone (dead
or alive), the gods, or nature is
intentionally malevolent
◦ Magical manipulations
◦ Evil eye
Traditional African Healers
First diagnose the illness
Determine supernatural cause
Dislodge the evil
Take measures to prevent reoccurrence
Uses herbs, other natural prescriptions
to treat symptoms
 Spirits of ancestors may transmit medical
knowledge
 Bleeding, massage, dietary restrictions,
chants, and charms may complete the
cure
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Traditional Health Beliefs
Reflect African, Native American and
white concepts
 Laxatives used regularly
 Cod liver oil to prevent colds
 Ingest Vicks VapoRub for colds
 Copper or silver bracelet worn for
protection
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◦ Darkened skin indicated impending illness
◦ Take precautions
Traditional Health Beliefs
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Health
◦ Ability to support family
◦ Fulfill social obligations
◦ Maintain emotional and spiritual wellbeing
◦ More than just lack of illness
◦ Self-empowerment
◦ May believe illness is punishment from
God
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Prayer is most important remedy
Traditional Health Beliefs
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Stress cause of poor health
◦ Cause of hypertension
◦ “Worriation” results in diabetes
Rural South may believe illness is due
to evil spirits or witchcraft
 Cured by herbal treatments,
incantations, magical transference
 Yellow root tea used to cure
stomachache and fever
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Traditional Health Beliefs:
Voodoo or Hoodoo
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Combination of Catholic and African
beliefs
◦ Believed to originate in the Caribbean
◦ Influenced by European witchcraft
For good or evil
 Cure unnatural (supernatural)
illnesses
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◦ Cast spells
◦ Use of magic powders
◦ Gris-gris bags
Traditional Health Beliefs
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Traditional herbalists or root doctors
Spiritual, sympathy or faith healers
◦ Derive power from God
May use one or all to treat
 Healers of all kind use holistic approach
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◦ Spend lots of time with the patient
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Not as common today
◦ Ill health due to fate or bad luck
◦ Home remedies preferred
 Garlic pills common
West African diet changed due to New World foods before Africans came to the US
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New World Foods
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Old World Foods
◦ Cassava
◦ Watermelon
◦ Corn
◦ Black-eyed peas
◦ Chiles
◦ Okra
◦ Peanuts
◦ Sesame
◦ Pumpkins
◦ Taro
◦ Tomatoes
Traditional Food Habits:
Ingredients and Common Foods
Traditional Food Habits:
Ingredients and Common Foods
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Adaptation and
substitutions made with
what was available
West African, British,
French, Spanish and
Native American
influences produced
American Southern
cuisine
Fried, boiled and roasted
Pork, pork fat
Corn, sweet potatoes,
local green leafy veggies
African Fare: West Africa
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Staples varied due to locale
◦ Corn, millet, rice in coastal areas, Sierra
Leone
◦ Yams in Nigeria
◦ Cassava and plantain in more southern
areas
 Congo and Angola
◦ Sahara Desert
 Tribes were pastoral, herding camels, sheep,
goats, and cattle
African Fare: West Africa
Local fish, game, insects, chicken
 Food boiled or fried, dipped in sauce,
eaten by hand
 Starchy vegetables boiled and
pounded into a paste called fufu.
 Palm oil predominant fat
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◦ Sometimes peanut, shea, or coconut oil
used
African Fare: West Africa
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“The Ingredients”
◦ Tomatoes
◦ Hot chile peppers
◦ Onions
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Dishes are spicy, thick and sticky
Legumes
◦ Peanuts
◦ Cow peas
 Black-eyed peas
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Eaten as a meat, often combined with a
starch
African Fare: West Africa
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Nuts and seeds to flavor and thicken
sauces
Many fruits
◦ Apples, baobab, guava, lemon, papaya
(pawpaw), pineapple, watermelon
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Coconut milk is often used
Eggplant
Okra
Pumpkin
Leaves from starch plants
African Fare: West Africa
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Fish is favored, little meat is consumed
Mostly vegetarian
◦ Beans, yams
◦ Cassava meal
 Gari
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Stews
◦ Root vegetables okra, peanuts
◦ Small amounts of meat, chicken or fish
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Curries with lots of condiments and
garnishes
African Fare: West Africa
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Snacks common
Deep-fried fish
Fried plantain chips
Steamed rice balls
Black-eyed peas
Yams
Peanuts
◦ Kanya: peanut candy
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Chin-chin
◦ Sweet fried pastries
topped with sugar and
different flavorings
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Sweetened dough balls
Ethiopian, Eritrean, Somali,
Sudanese
Staples include form of millet called
teff
 Sorghum
 Plantain
 Coffee leading export
 Enset
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◦ Staple in mountainous regions of Ethiopia.
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Chicken, fish, mutton, goat, and beef
Ethiopian Cuisine
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Previously few outside influences to
cuisine.
More vegetarian due to Ethiopian
Eastern Orthodox religion
◦ Restrict animal proteins
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Muslims follow halal practices
Wat is National dish.
◦ Stew with legumes, meat, poultry or fish
◦ Doro wat has chicken and hard boiled eggs
◦ Injera made from teff
Ethiopian Cuisine
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Berbere
◦ Hot spice mixture
◦ Used to flavor many foods
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Kitfo
◦ Raw ground beef specialty
◦ Seasoned with butter /spice mixture called
niter kebbeh
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Tej
◦ Fermented honey wine
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Tella
◦ Home-brewed millet or corn beer
Eritrean and Somali Food
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Similar to Ethiopian but more seafood
Spicy stew with meat eaten with anjeero
Bread consumed with shuro
◦ Thick paste made from chickpeas, onions,
tomatoes, berbere
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Eritreans are Coptic Eastern Orthodox
◦ Meat restrictions
◦ Prefer coffee
◦ Sowa
 Fermented barley beverage served most meals
Eritrean and Somali Food
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Somalis are Muslim
Prefer sweetened
tea
Camel’s milk
Italian Influence from
former Italian
occupation
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Spaghetti
Lasagna
Pasta
Frittata
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Asian Indian
influence
◦ Curried dishes
◦ Unleavened bread
 Roti
 Chapati
◦ Sambosa
 Stuffed fritters
Sudanese
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Desert region of North Africa
Tropical forests of West and East Africa
Reflects Middle Eastern and African
influences
Fava beans
Cucumber and yogurt
Okra stew
Kisra
◦ Staple bread similar to injera
East Africa: Kenya, Tanzania,
Uganda
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Well-suited to farming and ranching
Cassava, corn, millet, sorghum, peanuts,
plantains
Exports include coffee, tea, cashews,
cloves
Home of the Masai tribe
◦ Cattle considered gifts from the gods
◦ Indicate wealth
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Game animals may be sacred
Fish and seafood are common
East African Cuisines
Predominantly vegetarian
 Influenced by Arab, Asian Indian and British
 Bread at every meal
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◦ Kitumba – rice fritter
◦ Mandazi – slightly sweetened doughlike bread
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Kenya’s National dish
◦ Ugali – a doughy cornmeal porridge
Coconut milk, chile peppers, curries as
flavorings
 Uganda uses peanuts extensively
 Tanzanian core food is plantain
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South Africa
Temperate climate
 Dutch, British and
French, Muslim slave
influence
 Sosaties
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◦ Skewered curried mutton
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Bredie
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◦ Dried meat strips
preserved over smoke
Chutneys
 Sweets are common
 Dried fruits
 Fruit leathers
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◦ Mutton stew
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Bobotie
◦ Curry flavored meatloaf
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Frikkadels
◦ Braised meat patties
Biltong
◦ Planked fruit
Pastries
 Cookies
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Slave Diet
Foods supplied
depended on
availability, surplus
 Salt pork
 Corn
 Rice
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Molasses
Salted fish
Greens
Legumes
Sweet potatoes
Milk
Slave Diet
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Hunger was
common
Small game
Catfish and other
fish
Garden plots
Herbs
African foods
◦ Okra
◦ Cow peas
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American foods
◦ Cabbage
◦ Collard and mustard
greens
◦ Sweet Potatoes
◦ Turnips
Slave Diet
Pork variety cuts
 Chitterlings
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◦ Chitlins
◦ Intestines
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Maw
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◦ Stomach lining
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Tail
Hocks
Raise hogs and
chickens
Eggs and pork sold
Chickens reserved
for special
occasions
Slave Diet
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West African cooking methods adapted
◦ Boiling and frying
◦ Bean stew
◦ Corn substituted for the staple starch
 Grits
 Hominy
 Pone or spoonbread
◦ Lard replaced palm oil
◦ Hot peppers in place of chiles
◦ Peanuts and sesame seeds remained
Slave Diet
Had to be portable
 One dish stews
 Fried cakes
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◦ Hush puppies
◦ Hoecakes
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Simple
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Slaves working in
owners home
popularized
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Fried Chicken
Gumbo
Greens
Other West African
foods used as fillings
African American Southern Staples
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Texture before flavor
◦ Sticky preferred
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Pork and Pork Products
Corn
◦ Cornbread and hominy
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Greens
◦ Indigenous vegetation
◦ Cultivated greens
◦ Flavored with salt pork, fatback, bacon, ham,
hot-pepper sauce, lemon
◦ Pot likker
African American Southern Staples
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Pork variety cuts
Pig’s feet (or knuckles)
◦ Roasted or pickled
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Pig’s ears
Fried pork skin
◦ Cracklins
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Chitlins
Sausages and head cheese
◦ Seasoned loaf of meat from pig’s head
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BBQ pork
◦ Different recipes
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Poultry, small game, local fish and shellfish
African American Southern Staples
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Small game
◦ Raccoon and opossum
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Local fish and shellfish
◦ Catfish, crab, crawfish
Frog legs
 Turtles
 Often in stews and eaten with rice
 Coated in cornmeal and deep-fried
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African American Southern Staples
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Squash
◦ Stuffed
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Sweet potatoes
Both made into
dessert pies
sweetened with
molasses
Bread pie (pudding)
Crumb cake
Chocolate or
caramel cake
Fruit cobblers
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Puddings
Shortcake
Black-eyed peas
Okra
Peas
Tomatoes.
Onions
Green peppers
Meal Composition and Cycle
Daily Patterns
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Historically two meals a day in West
Africa
◦ Late morning, evening
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Snacking common
◦ Might replace morning meal
Men first, then boys, girls, last women
 Solemn
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Meal Composition and Cycle
Daily Patterns
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Boiled grits
Homemade biscuits
Eggs
Ham
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Bacon
Fried sweet potatoes
Coffee
Tea
Meal Composition and Cycle
Daily Patterns
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Frequent snacking continued in US
Irregular meals
Improved economic conditions brought
better meals
Southern style meal pattern
Breakfast large and leisurely
Meal Composition and Cycle
Daily Patterns
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Lunch (dinner)
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Main meal of the day
Boiled entrée
Vegetables, salads
Potatoes
Bread, biscuits
Baked dessert
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Full supper
◦ Meat
◦ Potatoes
◦ Vegetables
Meal Composition and Cycle
Daily Patterns
Today light lunch with supper the main
meal
 Southern style breakfast on the
weekends
 Traditions vary for recent immigrants
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◦ 3 meals in West Africa
 Kenya will have British style tea in the afternoon
◦ Ethiopians, Eritreans and Somalis 1 – 2 with
snacks
 Fool – puree chickpeas in Eritrea and Somalia
 Pinto beans for breakfast in Somalia
Traditional
Food served on communal plate
 Meals joyous and noisy
 Two meals daily when food in short
supply
 Men served first, women, then
children.
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Special Occasions
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Sunday dinner was the large family meal
◦ Fried chicken, potatoes, greens, cornbread, sweet potato
pie
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Christmas
◦ More food than Sunday
◦ Turkey with cornbread stuffing, corn pudding, sweet peas,
salads
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New Year’s symbolic foods
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Black-eyed peas for good luck
Fish for motivation
Greens for money
Rice for prosperity
Juneteenth
◦ Celebrate the emancipation of slaves
Special Occasions : Kwanzaa
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African American holiday
created in southern
California in 1966
Celebrates unity of all
people of African
heritage
December 26 - New
Year’s
New candle lit each day
to symbolize one of the
seven principles
Ends with feast of
African, Caribbean, and
US Southern foods
Special Occasions
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Recent African immigrants
◦ Those holidays associated with Eastern
Orthodox and Islamic faiths
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Nigerian child-naming ceremonies are
very important
◦ Grandmother performs ritual
◦ Symbolic foods offered to infant
 Water, oil, alcohol, honey, kola nuts, salt
◦ Name whispered to the child, then
announced to the attendees
◦ Family and guests then celebrate with a meal
Role of food in African American
Society and Etiquette
Traditionally a catalyst for social
interaction
 Southern Hospitality
 An “intimate” or “spiritual” experience
shared with others
 Food is an important factor in the
cohesiveness of African American
society
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Role of food in African American
Society and Etiquette
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In Africa sharing food still important
Loud conversation, gaiety
Urban areas practice Western styles
Meals often served communally
Consumed with hands
Right hand for eating, left hand to touch
nothing
Don’t pass from one person’s hand to
another
Stay seated until all finished
Don’t stick out your legs or lean on an elbow
Role of food in African American
Society and Etiquette
Invitation to coffee in Eritrea
 A visit over one hour
 3 cups minimum of coffee consumed
 Ends with incense being burned
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Therapeutic Uses of Food
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Maintain health by 3 meals daily
◦ Hot Breakfast
Variety of “blood” complaints
 High blood
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◦ Confused with high blood pressure and
high blood sugar levels
◦ “Caused” by excess blood that migrates
to one part of the body, typically the head
◦ From eating too much rich, sweet or red
foods
Therapeutic Uses of Food
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Low blood
◦ Associated with anemia
◦ From eating too many astringent /acidic foods
and not enough meats
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Thin blood
◦ Can’t nourish the body
◦ Person feels chilly
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Bad blood
◦ Hereditary, natural or supernatural contamination
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Unclean
◦ Impurities collect over the winter months
◦ Carries more heat and clots
Therapeutic Uses of Food
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Yellow root tea
◦ Cure stomachache, fever, treat diabetes
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Peppermint candies
◦ Help diabetes
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Sassafras tea or hot lemon-flavored water for
colds
Raw onion to break a fever
Turpentine with sugar to cure intestinal worms
Figs and honey eliminates ringworm
Goat’s milk with cabbage juice to cure stomach
infection
Eggs and milk withheld from sick children
Pica
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Eating nonnutritive substances
◦ Clay, chalk, laundry starch most common
◦ Milk or magnesia, coffee grounds, plaster,
ice, paraffin
Most often practiced by black women
during pregnancy and postpartum
 Common in the South
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Pica – WHY?
Unknown
 Nutritional need for minerals?
 Hunger or nausea?
 Desire for special treatment?
 Cultural tradition?
 Limited cultural support?
 Obsessive compulsive disorder?
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Pica
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Reasons women say they practice
pica:
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Flavor
Anxiety relief
Texture
Believed to prevent birthmarks
Starch makes baby’s skin light
Eases delivery
Therapeutic Uses of Food:
Recent Immigrants
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Balance of proper diet
Exercise
Good relations with family and
community
Emotional well-being
Spirituality
Overweight valued as a sign of health
Meat consumption may be associated
with longevity
Extensive use of botanical home
remedies
Contemporary Food Habits in the
US: Adaptations
Current socioeconomic status
 Geographic location
 Work schedule
 Often feel their food habits are
uniquely African American
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Contemporary Food Habits in the US:
Ingredients and Common Foods
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Do choose these foods more often
◦ Pork
 Especially chops, bacon and sausage
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Poultry
Fresh fish and seafood
Sugar
Non-carbonated fruit drinks
Choose these less
◦ Fruits, vegetables, dairy products
◦ Cereal and baked goods, snack foods, and
coffee
Contemporary Food Habits in the US:
Ingredients and Common Foods
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Soul food
◦ Traditional Southern black cuisine
◦ Fresh meats and vegetables made from
scratch
◦ Thoroughly cooked
◦ Well-spiced
◦ Symbol of ethnic solidarity
Contemporary Food Habits in the US:
Meal Composition and Cycle
 Have changed in response to work
habits
 Traditional large Southern breakfast,
dinner, and hearty supper more rare
 Now lighter breakfast, sandwich at
lunch, larger dinner
 Snacking still common
 Fried foods common
 Greens particularly liked
Contemporary Food Habits in the US:
Meal Composition and Cycle
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Fewer African Americans able to
identify foods that are African in origin
◦ Okra, yams, one-pot meals
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Traditional fare are not eaten often
◦ Pig’s feet and chitterlings
◦ Some foods are associated with the poor
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Greens are most popular traditional
African American food
Nutritional Status
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Intake similar to general population
Varies more by socioeconomic status
than by ethnicity
◦ Deficiencies among those at/near poverty
level
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Appear to have poor diets compared to
the total populations
◦ Low dairy product intake due to lactose
intolerance
◦ Low vegetable intake
◦ High intake of sodium
Nutritional Status
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Life expectancy is lower than for whites
Rates have not improved since the
1980’s
Morbidity and mortality rates for black
mothers and their infants is high
◦ 3x higher for maternal
◦ 2x higher for infant
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Teen pregnancy, poor prenatal care, low
folate intake associated with preterm
deliver and LBW
◦ 3x more likely to have VLBW baby
Nutritional Status
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Breastfeeding data is conflicting
◦ Low income women may not initiate
breastfeeding for fear of passing
dangerous things to their infants
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Often feed non-milk liquids or solids to
infants by 7 – 10 days
◦ 93% feed solids by 16 weeks
Nutritional Status: Overweight
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Overweight in adulthood is a common
problem
◦ 39% of black men
◦ 51% of black women
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Adolescents and children particularly
vulnerable
◦ Especially girls
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Fat patterning differs
◦ More upper body fat
◦ Deep-fat depositions
Nutritional Status: Body Image
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Difference in body-size ideal
Preference in body shape by members of the
opposite
Gender
More permissive attitude regarding obesity
High intake of fast food with limited access to
healthy foods
Sedentary lifestyle
Does not appear to change with
socioeconomic status
◦ Conflicting data
Nutritional Status: Standard
Anthropometric Measures
May be inappropriate
 Black women had lower body fatness
than white women with identical BMI
 BMI doesn’t account for differences in
fat-free mass
 Ethnicity specific standards may be
confounded by differences in
socioeconomic status
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Nutritional Status: Disordered
Eating
Overweight not associated with being
unattractive
 Greater acceptance of larger body
size
 Less preoccupied with dieting
 Low rates of eating disorders
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◦ May be excluded from studies
Nutritional Status: Diabetes
High rates of Type 2
 Genetic predisposition
 Lifestyle factors
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◦ Obesity
◦ Sedentary lifestyle
◦ Westernized dietary habits
Nutritional Status: Hypertension
Significant health problem
 43% women, 39% males
 Potent risk factor for coronary heart
disease (CHD)
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◦ Especially in women
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Double the age-specific death rate
from strokes
Nutritional Status:
Iron-Deficiency Anemia
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Rates higher than for whites at every age
◦ Regardless of sex or income level.
Pica may result in anemia for women and
newborns
 Hookworm a cause in the rural South.
 Blood disorders prevalent in African
Americans
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◦ Alpha-thalassemia
◦ Sickle-cell disease
◦ Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency.
Researchers have also suggested that
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Undiagnosed celiac disease
Nutritional Status: Recent
Immigrants
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Ethiopian
◦ Deficiencies in
 Vitamin D
 Iodine
 Calcium
◦ Consumption of enset (false banana)
 Esophageal cancer
◦ Vitamin A
 Blindness
 Xeropthalmia
Nutritional Status: Recent
Immigrants

Sudanese
◦ Blindness due to trachoma common
◦ High rates of numerous problems






Extreme malnutrition
AIDS
Malaria
Diarrheal infections
TB
Typhoid, etc.
Nutritional Status: Recent
Immigrants

Ethiopians in Israel
◦ Teens have a very poor diet
◦ Men developed hypertension after
immigration
◦ Similar findings in Australia with immigrants
from Ghana

Nigerian
◦ Edema during pregnancy indication of a boy
 Treatment not sought
◦ Breastfeeding regularly practiced
 Also in public
Nutritional Status: Recent
Immigrants

Somali
◦ Associate fatness with health
◦ Children are therefore overfed

Somali Bantus
◦ Particularly poor health
◦ Acute or chronic malnutrition from African
refugee camps
◦ Little knowledge of American foods
◦ LBW infants common
◦ Weaning at six months due to another pregnancy
◦ Diarrheal diseases, infections, PTSD common
Counseling
Limited access to health care
 Cost, including time off from work
 Self-reliance highly valued

◦ May lead to delay in seeking care
◦ Minimizing symptoms
Fate determines wellness
 Care sought for relief of symptoms not
prevention of illness or health
maintenance

Counseling

Often present-oriented
◦ Flexible scheduling
◦ On-time policies
May feel patronized by non-black
providers
 Suspicious and hostile
 May not communicate needs or
questions
 May believe health care is out of their
control

◦ Up to luck or destiny
Counseling
Conversational style fully engaged and
very expressive
 Be direct but respectful
 Maintain eye contact but not prolonged
 Attentive listening most important
 Firm handshake and smile for greeting

◦ Hugging and kissing might be included

Touching is common
◦ Reluctance to touch may be interpreted as
personal rejection
Counseling

Ask about nonnutritive food intake
during pregnancy
◦ Typically willingly list items consumed
when asked directly
◦ Problems may include
 Excessive weight gain (starch)
 Aggravated high blood pressure (sodium in the
clay)
 Iron-deficiency anemia and hyperkalemia
 OTC remedies for gas and constipation may
be harmful
Counseling

Pregnancy
◦ High blood state
◦ Will avoid meats




Hypertension confused with high blood
may eat astringent foods which are often
high in sodium
Investigate home remedies for diabetes
Unlikely they will mention use of healers
Ask if illness is due to outside forces or
witchcraft and any other treatment being
sought
Counseling
Recommendations should be action or
task-oriented
 Family oriented and group classes may
be more successful
 Use community resources
 Culturally relevant education

◦
◦
◦
◦

Spirituality
Ethnic pride
Group planning
Peer counselors
Do not restrict traditional foods
Counseling: Recent Immigrants

Ethiopians
◦
◦
◦
◦
Use an interpreter
Warm, personable communication style
Positive outlook
Disclose poor prognosis or terminal illness to
patient’s family who will then inform patient
◦ Injections preferred
◦ May view illness as punishment from God or
angry spirits
 Somali Bantus may believe this, too
 May use herbals remedies or spiritual healing
 May stop meds as so on as symptoms subside
Counseling: Recent Immigrants

Eritreans
◦ May return to Africa for specific botanical
treatments
Caribbean or Central Americans most
likely to associate their food habits
with Latinos
 Pay attention to religious affiliations

◦ Islam
◦ Eastern Orthodox

In-depth interview needed for all