Transcript and extra-linguistic context

Chapter 8
Meaning and Context
This chapter discusses two types of
contexts, namely linguistic context and
extra-linguistic context, the relationship
between meaning and context, and the way
in which context affects the meaning of
words, and how to make use of the context.
 Main points
1.Types of Context:
Extra-linguistic context
Linguistic context
2.Role of verbal or linguistic context
Elimination of ambiguity
Indication of referents
Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning
 8.1 Types of Context
 Definitions of Linguistic Context (verbal context) and
extra-linguistic context:
Linguistic context refers to the words, clauses, sentences
in which a word appears. Sometimes linguistic context may
cover a paragraph, a chapter and even the entire book.
Extra-linguistic context or non-linguistic context refers to
the physical situation, embracing the people, time, place
and even the whole cultural background.
Types of context: linguistic context: linguistic context
(verbal context) and extra-linguistic context (non-linguistic
context)
Importance of extra-linguistic context: The writer cites
five examples to show how important extra-linguistic
context affects the meaning of words (quick; look out; trade
union; landlord and weekend).

Linguistic context can be subdivided into lexical context
and grammatical context.
A . lexical context (词汇语境) refers to the words that occur
together with the word in question. The meaning of the
word is often affected and defined by the neighboring
words. For instance, “head” has quite a few meanings in
the dictionary, yet in each of the following context, it
conveys only one sense.
from head to foot(从头到脚) a head of state (国家元首)
a head of cabbage (一棵白菜) a department head(一个部
门的主任) to count heads (点人数) one hundred head of
sheep (一百头羊) at the head of the list (在名单的开头) to
discuss the question under five heads（分五个小组讨论问
题） to lose one’s head (丧命) to use your head (动动脑筋)
Two heads are better than one (两人智慧胜一人)
another example, “hard”: hard work( 艰苦的工作) hard
blow(沉重的一击) hard discipline (严明的纪律) hard
winter (严冬) hard heart（冷酷的心）
B. grammatical context (语法语境): In some cases,
the meanings of a word may be influenced by the
structure in which it occurs. This is what we call
grammatical context. For instance, “make” can be
used in different sentence patterns, its meanings will
be different.
(SVO) God made the country, man made the town.
(创造)
(SVOC) The bad news made everybody depressed.
(使得……)
(SVC) She will make a good teacher. (成为……)
(SVOO) He is going to make us a report. (给……
作……)
 8.2 Role of verbal or linguistic context
1. Elimination of ambiguity
Ambiguity often arises due to polysemy and homonymy. When a word
with more than one meaning is used in inadequate context, it creates
ambiguity.
e.g. 1) Are you engaged? ---Are you busy?
---Are you betrothed?
2)This door is unlockable.---This door is not able to be locked.
---This door is able to be unlocked.
3) She is an English teacher. --- She is a teacher who teaches English (if
“English” is stressed while reading).
--- She is a teacher with British nationality (if
“teacher” is stressed while reading).
Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity.
e.g. 1) Jack and Jane are married.--- Jack is married to Jane. Or: Jack and
Jane are married to each other.
---Jack is married and so is Jane.
2) a married man and woman. --- a married man and a married woman
--- a married man and a woman.
2. Indication of Referents
English has a large number of words such as
now/then, here/there, I / you, this/that, these/those,
which are often used to refer directly to people, time,
place, etc. without clear context, the reference can be
very confusing. e.g. city/town, afternoon/ evening,
evening/night, forest/wood, etc. Their referents are
very vague.
3. Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning
Context may prove extremely valuable in guessing
the meanings of new words. In a piece of writing, the
author generally gives hints which help readers to
understand the idea or grasp the concept. Context
clues vary a great deal but can be summed up as
follows:
1)Definition. We often find that the author gives formal definition
immediately after the new term.
Perhaps the most startling theory to come out of kinesics , the study of
body movement, was suggested by Prof. Birdwhistell.
2)Explanation. If the concept is complicated and must involve technical
terms in its definition, the author might explain the idea in simple
words.
It’s just one more incredible result of the development of
microprocessors—those tiny parts of a computer commonly known as
“silicon chips”.
3)Example. In some cases, instead of giving a formal definition or
explanation, the author may cite an example which is sufficient to
throw light on the meaning of the term.
Many United Nations employees are polyglots. Mary, for example, speaks
five languages.
4)Synonymy. The author often uses synonyms or synonymous expressions to
explain new words.
Their greatest fear was of a conflagration, since fire would destroy their
flimsy wooden settlement before help could arrive.
5)Antonymy. The author frequently uses contrasting words or statements to
explain unknown words.
AS the fighting on all fronts reached its peak, the economy neared its
nadir.
Unlike her gregarious sister, Jane is a shy, unsociable person.
6)Hyponymy. Superordinates and subordinates often define and explain each
other, thus forming an important context clue.
The village had most of the usual amenities: a pub, a library, a post office,
a village hall, a medical centre, and a school.
7)Relevant details. In some contexts, the author provides details relating to
the unknown word, such as the functions, characteristics, nature, etc. of
the referent.
IN spite of the fact that the fishermen were wearing sou’ westers, the
storm was so heavy that they were wet through.
8)Word structure. The morphemic structure of words, especially compounds
and derived words offers clues for inferring the meanings of unknown
words.
Copernicus believed in a heliocentric universe, rather than in the
geocentric theory.
 State the vital roles of context in determination of word
meaning.
 Answer: Context is a vital clue in determining word meaning.
Namely, it can eliminate ambiguity, indicate referents, and
provide clues for inferring word meaning. First, a word or
even a sentence without adequate context can be quite
ambiguous. So it is hard to determine the exact meaning
especially when the word is polysemous or the sentence
structure has a difference in interpretation. Second, some
referents like pronouns, nouns, may refer to anything or
anybody. As for a pronoun or a noun, if we know what its
exact meaning or referent is, we have to know it from its
context. Third, context provides important clues in
understanding unknown words or inexact meanings. The
clues can be: 1) definition, 2) explanation, 3) example, 4)
synonymy, 5)antonymy, 6) hyponymy, 7) relevant details, 8)
word structure.