Transcript War and Revolution

War and
Revolution
Chapter 25
The Road to WWI
A.) Assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand- June 28, 1914
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Heir to Austrian throne, shot by Serbian Nationalist
B.) Nationalism and Internal Dissent
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Emergence of nation-states in mid 19th century led not to
conservative cooperation, but to competition
a. Era of imperialism
b. Formation of alliances
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Bismarckian System of Alliances- hoped to prevent conflict with
Austria-Hungary and Russia, as well as isolate France
Eventually developed military alliance w/P in case of R
aggression
Three Emperor’s League- P, A-H, and R
Russian-German Reassurance Treaty- pledge of neutrality in
case of attack
France sought military alliance w/R
Triple Alliance & Triple Entente
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Germany perceived as international threat
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Competition in world markets- imperialism
Construction of massive navy
Morocco crisis- brought England and France together
d. Growth of nationalism among ethnicities who had
not achieved independence from major European
powers- Balkan states from Austria, Ireland from
England, Poles from Russia
e. Growth of Socialist labor movements- pursuance of
foreign policy and entrance into WWI divert attention
away from internal problems
C.) Militarism
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Militarism- rule/dependence on army to maintain order and stability- relied
upon as savior of nation- expression of nationalism
Growth of large mass (standing) armies- made possible through
conscription
Formation of rigid military plans in case of war which national leaders
forced to follow
C.) Outbreak of War: Summer 1914
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The Ottoman Empire- “Sick man of Europe”
The Balkans- “The powder keg of Europe”
a. Serbia- seeking independence from Austria-Hungary and
formation of independent Slavic state
b. Russia supported Serbian movement for independence
against rival Austria Hungary
c. Assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand prompted
Austrian suspicion of Russian intervention on behalf of Serbia
d. A.H. sought backing of Germany
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Entangling alliances form
a. Austria declares war on Serbia
b. Prompted full mobilization of Russian army to support Serbia
c. Germany declared war on Russia when failed to halt
mobilization- act of war
General Alfred von Schlieffen- architect of German War plans
a. Designed plan for 2 front war- France and Russia
b. Limited engagement with Russia while launched full
invasion of France
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Russia would take longer to mobilize
Takeover France before English could cross English channel
c. Invade France through neutral Belgium-flat plains
d. Then German army would swing to eastern front and defeat
Russia
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Germany declared war on France
Great Britain declared war on Germany
By August 4th, all great powers of Europe were at war
The Great War (1914-1918)
1914-1915: Illusions and stalemate
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Great public support for war- government propaganda,
belief of a quick war
Execution of Schlieffen Plan- halted 20 miles from Paris in
the First Battle of the Marne
War on western front resulted in stalemate and trench
warfare
War on eastern front marked by more mobility- Russians
pushed back into Russian territory by Austrian-German
alliance
Austria defeated by Russians (at first)
Italy betrayed Austria and Germany and entered war on
Allied side
By 1915: Russia ready to drop out of war, Serbia defeated
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1916-1917: The Great Slaughter
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Success on Eastern front- allowed Germany to concentrate
on Western front
Trench warfare- system of barb wire, concrete machine
gun nests, mortar batteries, supported farther back by
heavy artillery
“No-Man’s land”- space in-between opposing trenches
Solution to trench warfare and lack of mobility?
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Massive frontal attacks- prolonged period of bombing followed
by massive flow of troops
Resulted in enormous casualties- the machine gun quickly cut
down lines of men
Battle of Verdun- 700k deaths within 10 month period
New style of warfare and new technology produced high
casualties and psychological impact- machine gun, tanks,
poisonous gas
The Widening of the War
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The Middle East, Africa, East Asia, and the Pacific
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Middle East- British officer Lawrence of Arabia- incited Arab princes
to revolt against Ottoman Empire
Africa- British and white African invaded S. W. Africa to defeat
German forces
Allied relied upon drafted Africans to fight campaigns against
Germans
East Asia- Japan joined allies to seize German territories in Asia
Entry of the U.S.
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U.S. remained neutral through 1917
Sinking of Lusitania by German submarines in 1915 incited
Americans to intervene on behalf of Allies
German unrestricted submarine warfare persuaded America to
intervene- revoked Sussex Pledge
Zimmerman telegram- German telegram intercepted- asked Mexico
to invade U.S. in return for possessions following successful war
1917
Entrance of U.S. on behalf of Allies
Russian withdrawal from war- Bolshevik Revolution
The Home Front: The Impact of Total War
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At first, extreme enthusiasm and patriotism.
Total War- mobilization of home front and all resources to
aid war effort
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Mass conscription, government control of economies (price,
production, distribution, nationalization)
Less distinction between soldiers and citizens- citizens played
just as vital role in war effort through willingness to sacrificerationing, working in factories, etc… (War Raw Materials
Board in Germany)
Internal dissent led to individual liberty restrictions:
» England- Defence of the Realm Act (DORA)- allowed
public authorities to arrest dissenters and traitors, censor
newspapers
» France- Premier Georges Clemenceau suspended civil
liberties for duration of war
Spread of government propaganda to maintain support for
war
Total War- brought end to unemployment
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Role of Women:
» New roles for women- employed in jobs considered
to be outside woman’s capacity
» Women demanded equal pay as men- resulted in
higher, but not equal wages
» Following war- women removed from jobs as men
returned from war front
» Suffrage granted during war years in Germany,
Austria, and England
» Greater social emancipation- leisure activities,
dress, conduct
War and Revolution
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The 1905 Russian Revolution
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Revolution of 1905- failed to bring about liberal reforms
under Nicholas II- fell back to authoritative regime
Russia unprepared for WWI- poor mobilization,
leadership, training, strategy, lack of resources
1917- 2 million KIA’s, 6 million casualties- lost will to fight
Incompetent and inefficient bureaucracy led to growing
disenfranchisement of middle class, aristocrats, peasants,
soldiers, and workers
Rasputin- holy man who gained political voice through
Nicholas II’s wife Alexandra
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The Bolshevik Revolution of 1917
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Worker strikes broke out in Petrograd- 1917
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Mobilization of Russian women- “Peace and Bread”- end the
war and food for the hungry
Followed by General strike- shut down factories in city
Nicholas II ordered troops to disperse strike and shoot if
necessary
» Many troops joined demonstrators
Duma- Russian legislative body convened to assume
governmental responsibility- followed by abdication of
throne
Provisional Government- headed by Alexander Kerensky
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Decided to carry on war- blunder
Soviets- councils of workers and soldiers
» Represented radicalism of lower class workers- socialists
such as the Bolsheviks
Bolsheviks- Marxist Socialist Democrats under leadership of Vladimir Lenin
- Party dedicated to revolution- pure Marxists
Exiled to Switzerland, returned under German help to secure order in Russia
Looked to gain support of Soviets, therefore pursued goals of:
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End to war
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Redistribution of land to peasants
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Transfer of factories and industries from capitalists to committees of
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Transfer of govt. power from Provisional govt. to Bolsheviks
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Leon Trotsky- revolutionary chairman of Petrograd Soviet- united with Bolsheviks
(Communists) to overthrow Provisional government (pg. 643)
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Treaty of Brest-Litovsk- March 1918 (Russia and Germany) Russian withdrawal from
war in return for Poland, Ukraine, Finland, and Baltic provinces
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Civil War- resulted from lack of support for new communist regime from pro-tsar
groups, aristocrats, and anti-Lenin groups
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1918-1921: Bolshevik (Red) Army fought series of internal wars
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Defeat of White (anti-communist) army
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Tsar and family murdered
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Success of Bolsheviks:
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Leadership of Trotsky
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Well disciplined army
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Disunity of anti-communist forces
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Single goal or vision of Communists
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“War Communism”- program used to ensure regular supplies for Red Armynationalization of banks and industries, forced seizure of grain, centralization of
state under Bolshevik control
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“Red Terror”- secret police (Cheka)- terrorist organization who eliminated all
opposition to communist govt.
The Last Year of the War
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Russia’s withdrawal allowed for new German war plan
Erich von Ludendorff- proposed grand military offensive to
break military stalemate on Western front
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Offensive halted at 2nd Battle of the Marne- July 1918
Convinced Ludendorff that the war was lost and that Germany
should sue for peace
Naval mutiny, formation of socialist movements pressure
Wilhelm II to abdicate throne
Socialists under Friedrich Ebert establish republic in Germany
to negotiate terms of peace and call for armistice
The Peace Settlement
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Peace of Paris conference- guided by “Big 3”- U.S., France, England
U.S. President Woodrow Wilson- called for a lasting peace- reduction of
national armaments, pursuance of self-determination, eradicating
absolutism and militarism, and creation of League of Nations
France- Georges Clemenceau sought to punish Germany- wanted
revenge and security against future German aggression.
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Treaty of Versailles- June 1919
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De-militarized Germany
German reparations
Separate of Rhineland as buffer b/w France and Germany
Contained War Guilt Clause- declared Germany responsible for starting the war
and ordered Germany to pay reparations for all damages incurred by allies.
German military lowered to 100k army
Return Alsace Lorraine to France
Land west of Rhine River established as de-militarized zone
Harsh treaty on Germany
Other Peace Treaties
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Austrian-Hungary empire dissolved
Formation of new nation-states in Slavic territories
Ottoman Empire dissolved- recognition of independent Arab states
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European mandates established over Middle Eastern states
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The Futile Search for Stability
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Uneasy Peace, Uncertain Security
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Weak League of Nations
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German Reparations- $33 billion
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Failure of U.S. to join league due to isolationist sentiment
Article X
Could only impose economic sanctions
No military power
German depression followed WWI- inflation, unable and unwilling to
repay reparations
France occupied Ruhr valley- Germany’s chief industrial and mining
center
Dawes Plan (1924)- American plan to stabilize Germany’s
reparation repayments
Treaty of Locarno (1925)- peace agreement b/w France and
Germany- guaranteed Germany’s western borders with France
and Belgium
The Age of Anxiety
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Post WWI World
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Desire for Normalcy
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Great Break- WWI & Russian Revolution
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Desire for lasting peace- progress and prosperity
Post war world characterized by uncontrollable and
uncertain times
Harding’s “Return to
Normalcy”
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Uncertainty in Modern Thought
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Background Beliefs:
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Progress, reason, rights of individuals
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Increased std of living, increased education,
expanding rights of individual
New age of intellectuals emerged after war and
attacked these human traits
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Humans- violent, irrational, naturally corrupt and
selfish
Post war humans would now suffer from “Cruelly
injured mind”- Paul Valery
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Modern Philosophy
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Friedrich Nietzche- German intellectual
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Logical Empiricism
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Condemned Christianity (“God is dead”)
Reason, democracy, progress, and respectability- outdated
social beliefs/established ideas that impeded pragmatic
excellence
Cynical world
Rejected traditional philosophy
Rejected religion
Embodied by works and ideas of Ludwig Wittgensteinphilosophy = logical clarification of thoughts
Existentialism
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Sought to apply moral values to new world
Often atheists, believe in power of human life and experience
Define oneself thru actions
– Revival of Christianity
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Pre WWI Christian dilemma- reconcile religion
with science
Post WWI- emergence of Christian
existentialism- stressed evilness of humans and
need for faith and God’s forgiveness
Religion provided relief of anxiety and made
sense of post war world
– “ One began to believe in heaven because one
believed in hell”
– New Physics
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Pre WWI- Science = rational and optimistic
Europe; strong emphasis on evolution and
scientific research and observation
New physics concentrated on study of elements
– Albert Einstein- theory of special relativity; speed of light
only constant
– 1920’s- Heroic age of Physics; atoms split; universe
became relative rather than finite
– Freudian Psychology
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Pre-Freud- human behavior was result of
processing experiences and senses in a logical
and rational way
Freud’s theory- human behavior is irrational
– Id- irrational unconsciousness within every mind that is
driven by sexual, aggressive, and pleasure seeking
desires and is always in a constant state of battle with
other parts of the mind
– Ego- mediates what a person can do
– Superego- ingrained moral values- what person should
do
– 20th Century Literature
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Stream of Consciousness Technique- ideas and
emotions from previous periods emerge
randomly
Attention focus shift:
– From society to individual
– From realism to relativity
– Rejected idea of progress (anti-utopias such as 1984)
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Modern Art & Music
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Modernism
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Rejection of old values
New kinds of experimentation
Architecture & Design
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Functionalism- concentrated on pragmatic
rather than ornate building structures
U.S. = skyscrapers (Louis Sullivan & Frank
Lloyd Wright)
Bauhaus- German architectural school of
modern style
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Modern Painting
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Modernism was a rejection of French impressionism
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Impressionism- capture momentary feeling of event; real life
scenes (super-realism)
» Exs- Monet, Renoir, Pissaro
Post-impressionists/expressionists emerged at turn of the
century- portrayed psychological view of reality
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Starry Night- Van Gogh
» Gauguin
» Cezanne- 2 dimensional
» Matisse
» Pablo Picasso- founder of Cubism- geometric style of
painting
Extreme Expressionism and abstract painting well established
by WWI
Post WWI:
» i. Dadaism- attacked all acceptable standards of art and
behavior- outrageous conduct
» Surrealism- fantastic world of wild dreams and complex
symbols
Modern Music
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Modernist music reflected same themes as modern art
Movies & Radio
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Masses attracted to radio and movies rather than art
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Hollywood
Birth of a Nation
Charlie Chaplin
Movies became #1 form of mass entertainment- escape from
reality
Radio
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Marconi- “wireless communication”
Family entertainment
Propaganda
Analyze the economic, social, and political
effects of WWI on European countries.
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The Search for Peace and Political
Stability
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Treaty of Versailles
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Truce rather than “lasting peace”
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German resentment
U.S. isolationism
Worldwide depression
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Democracy vs. Communism
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Germany and the Western Powers
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French security depended upon harsh Treaty terms on Germany
GB sought to establish prosperous trade in Germany
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France emerged with largest army in western Europe
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Keynes’ Economic Consequences of Peace- predicted that
reparations would lead to German depression, as well as economic
hardship on European countries
Occupied German Rhineland as buffer
Formed defensive treaties with E. Europe- Poland
German reparations set at $33 bil/ 2.5 bil gold marks per year
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Reparations began in 1921 under Weimar Republic
By 1922- inflation skyrocketed and Germany unable to pay asked for
3 year moratorium
France moved in and occupied Ruhr valley- industrial heartland of
Germany to force
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Hope in Foreign Affairs, 1924-1929
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Dawes Plan (1924)
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Locarno Agreements- Germany and France accepted
mutual border; French promised military aid to E. Europe in
case of German aggression
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Plan accepted by France, Germany and Great Britain
German reparations based upon strength of German
economy
Germany received loans from U.S. to encourage recovery,
paid back allies, who then paid back U.S.
Provided false sense of stability and security
Germany joined L of N
Washington Naval Conference- Disarmament
Kellogg-Briand Pact- Outlawed War
DISILLUSIONMENT
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Hope in Democratic Government
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Germany
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Ascension and imprisonment of Adolf Hitler
» National Socialist Party
» Beer Hall Putsch- called for overthrow of govt and
imprisoned
» Mein Kampf- My Struggle
Political Divisions within govt
» Communists vs. social democrats (socialists)
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France
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Great Britain
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Occupation of Ruhr led to deficit and inflation
#1 problem- unemployment (23%)
State welfare programs prevented class tensions and
maintained std of living
Labour Party replaced Liberal Party with revisionist socialist
agenda
The Great Depression
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Depression
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Period of steady economic decline coupled with rising
unemployment
Great Depression of 1920’s most severe depression to
hit global world
Facilitated greater social and political consequences
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Economic Crisis
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1920’s- “A Bull Market”
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Mass Unemployment
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Unsound financial and Stock market practices
Black Tuesday
Run on Banks
Countries recalled debts
Tariffs
Gold Standard
U.S. Isolationism
25-35% in U.S. and England
40% + in Germany
New Deal in U.S.
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FDR’s New Deal Programs- Federal spending to create jobs and
stimulate economic growth
Keynesian Economics
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Scandinavian Response to Depression
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Most successful in combating depression of all western European
countries
Keynesian Economics in socialist nation
Welfare socialism
Recovery and Reform in Great Britain and France
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Great Britain
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Shift in economy from export to domestic production
France
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Depression more severe- coupled with political instability
Growth of Fascism- inspired by Hitler (Goooooooo France)
Popular Front- political alliance of Socialists, Communists, and
Radicals to combat growth of fascism
Popular Front govt launched series if programs based upon New Deal
Govt collapsed due to economic turmoil
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The Great Depression
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Factors leading to depression:
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Downturn in domestic economies
International financial crisis- collapse of American stock
market in 1929
» Encouraged Americans to halt investment in Europe
(Germany)
» Industrialists cutting back production- employment
» 1932- 40% German workforce unemployed (pg. 650)
Social repercussions- women able to secure low paying jobs
while men remained unemployed
Govt. relied upon conservative deflationary policy- raise
tariffs, cut spending
Increase in Socialist movements- anti-capitalist
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The Democratic States
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England- decline in markets and industrial production led to
increased unemployment
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France- strongest power on European continent
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Most balanced economy- initially did not feel depression
1936- unstable govt. led to coalition of leftist parties (communists,
socialists, and radicals)- formed Popular Front
Germany- Weimar Republic established in post war era
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John Maynard Keynes- General Theory of Employment, Interest, and
Money- advocated govt. spending to offset depression rather than
letting itself work out
Lack of political leadership- Paul von Hindenburg (WWI Hero) elected
President- no heart for Republic- militarist by nature
Runaway inflation
U.S.- 25% unemployment
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FDR- New Deal Program- govt. public works programs to stimulate
economy
Did not solve problems of Great Depression- WWII did
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Socialism in Soviet Russia
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1921-22- severe drought and lack of industrial production- 5
million died of famine
Lenin’s New Economic Policy (NEP)- modified capitalist system
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Alexandra Kollontai- pushed for women’s rights and social
welfare reforms
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Forced requisition of food from peasants
Small businesses could operate under private ownership- heavy
industry and banking still nationalized
Achieved health reforms, legalized divorce, permitted abortions,
Formed women’s division of Communist Party known as Zhenotdelhelped spread communist ideas and reforms in Russia
Lenin dies in 1924- power struggle ensues in Politburo- institution
that had become the leading organ of the party
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Left- led by Trotsky- called for end to NEP, pursue rapid
industrialization, continue the revolution into countryside
Right- rejected world revolution, construct socialist state,
continue NEP
Personal rivalry between Trotsky and Joseph Stalin
Stalin gained control of Communist Party, expelled Trotsky, and
established dictatorship by 1929
Dictatorships and WWII
Authoritarian States
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Conservative Authoritarianism- smaller states of
central and eastern Europe; By later-1920s
political democracy (parliamentary governments
gave way to authoritarian regimes).
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First to fall: Bulgaria, Poland, Yugoslavia. All except
Czechoslovakia in 1930s. Why?
Rooted in anti-democratic practices
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Goal- preserve existing social order and political change
Bureaucracy and army to maintain order
Did NOT focus on daily lives of people
Rise in Conservative Authoritarianism post WWI:
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Lacked strong self-government
Ethnic conflicts
Dictatorship = preservation of order and restoration of
national unity
Democracy = Depression
Spain & the Franco Regime
Parliamentary monarchy failed, too. Why?
•Social tensions from industrialization & post-war inflation
- Miguel Primo de Rivera (general) led coup in 1923
and instituted dictatorship
- Depression led to a new Spanish republic instituted
in 1931, but party politics shifted until the Popular Front
took over in 1936. This failed to last, however, and
General Francisco Franco led Spanish military forces
(right) against the government (left) in a rebellion that
resulted in a 3 year Civil War. Franco forces were aided by
Hitler and Mussolini and eventually defeated the PF.
•Franco’s regime lasted until his death in 1975.
Radical Totalitarian
Dictatorships
– Emerged in larger nations such as
Germany, Soviet Union, and Italy
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Society divided, Depression deepened social
conflict, People felt victimized by war, politics
became radicalized and extremist
Rejected legislative restraint
Unprecedented control over people’s lives (E, S,
P)
Mass propaganda & modern communication
All institutions and people subordinate to state
– State controlled and molded social, cultural, intellectual,
and family life- indoctrination of state values for the
achievement of the state’s goals. Can be left or
right-wing—but all similar in some respects
Stalin’s Soviet Union
From Lenin to Stalin
– Lenin’s New Economic Policy (NEP)
» Goal:
» Results:
– Stalin rejected NEP when assumed leadership- why?
– How was Stalin able to seize power?
– 5 Year Plans
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Goals:
Results:
Collectivization:
Kulaks:
Forced Labor Camps:
Famine:
Rapid Industrialization:
Labor Unions:
– Life and Culture in Soviet Society
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Standard of Living:
Housing:
Consumer Products:
Worker concessions:
Education:
Women:
Propaganda:
Russian Nationalism:
– Stalinist Terror and Great Purges
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Plots against Stalin:
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Great Purge:
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Mussolini and
Fascism in Italy
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Seizure of Power
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Benito Mussolini:
Role of Church:
Black Shirts:
March on Rome
The Regime in Action
– Opposition:
– Quasi-Totalitarianism:
Hitler and Nazism in Germany
– Roots of Nazism
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Nazism:
Adolf Hitler:
Anti-Semitism:
Beer Hall Putsch:
Mein Kampf:
Weimar Republic:
– Hitler’s Road to Power
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National Socialist German’s Working Party:
Treaty of Versailles:
Hitler youth groups:
Brown Shirts:
Reichstag:
Chancellor:
– Nazi State and Nazi Society
• Enabling Act:
• Labor unions:
• Storm Troopers (SA):
• SS:
• Nuremberg Laws:
• Kristallnacht:
• Women:
• Racial Purity:
• Education:
-- Hitler’s Popularity