Transcript 1.7) Ch 28 Lecture PowerPoint

Chapter 28
Revolutions and National
States in the Atlantic World
1
Popular Sovereignty
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Ancient and medieval notions of kingship: “mandate of
heaven,” “divine right of kings”
Challenged by Enlightenment ideas about “natural rights”
of the individual
Kings to be made responsible to subject populations
John Locke (1632-1704)
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Second Treatise of Civil Government (1690)
Argues that government derives power from consent
of ruled
Individuals retain personal rights, give political rights
to government that Locke calls a “Common-wealth”
(which is not necessarily a democracy)
2
Individual Freedoms
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Voltaire (pen name of François-Marie
Arouet, 1694-1778)
 Championed religious freedom and
freedom of expression
 Écrasez l’infame: His slogan, “Let us
crush the infamous thing!” referred to
the Catholic authorities; he was a deist
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
 Argued for equality of all individuals,
regardless of class, before the law
 The Social Contract (1762), argues that
society is collectively the sovereign
3
Revolution in America
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Little indication of forthcoming revolution in mideighteenth century
Thirteen colonies regarded themselves as British
subjects
Long cultural and personal connections with England
Mutually profitable economic relationship between
colonies and England with little governmental
oversight: historians often refer to the first half of the
1700s as a period “benign neglect”
4
French and Indian War, 1754-1763
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Expensive, extensive
Overlapped with
Seven Years’ War
(1756-1763)
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Conflict in Europe,
India & Caribbean
British victory ensured
global dominance,
North American
prosperity
5
Increased Taxation in 1760s
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Bills come due from the Seven Years’ War
Tax burden falls to the colonies
 Sugar Act (1764): Actually lowered the tax on molasses, but
created an enforcement mechanism to crack down on rampant
smuggling: tried not before a jury of peers, but naval officers.
 Stamp Act (1765): First times the colonies try to coordinate
their protests against British authorities with the Stamp Act
Congress.
 Quartering Act (1765): Housing of British troops
 Tea Act (1773): British East India Company can sell tea
directly to colonies at a lower rate; infuriates colonial
merchants.
6
The Declaration of Independence
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British products boycotted, officials attacked
Protests
 Boston Tea Party (1773), tea dumped into Boston harbor in
protest against Tea Act
 “Sons of Liberty” initiate protests, often dressed as Indians
Continental Congress formed (1774), coordinates colonists’
resistance to British policies
 April 19, 1775: Battle of Lexington and Concord
 June 14, 1775: Congress creates Continental Army; appoints
Washington as its commander the following day
 July 4, 1776, adopts Declaration of Independence
 “Articles of Confederation” adopted; creates weak national
government
 Influence of Locke: retention of individual rights, sovereignty
based on consent of the ruled
7
Divided Loyalties
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Patriots
 Those who supported revolution, in majority
Loyalists (Tories)
 Estimated 20 percent of white population that remained loyal to
British monarchy; many in New York City, which was occupied
by the British for most of the war.
Neutrals
 Quakers: Their pacifism did not allow them to fight; patriots
came to revile them because of this.
Divided
 Native Americans, African-Americans: British offer
emancipation to slaves if they fight for their side
8
Revolutionary War
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Colonies:
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Logistical advantage;
fighting on home turf
Popular support
Support of British rivals
George Washington
(1732-1799) proves a
charismatic leader, if not
a militarily gifted one.
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Britain:
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Strong central
government
Most powerful navy in
the world, highly trained
army
Loyalist population
tended to be wealthy and
influential
9
The American Revolution
10
Building an Independent State
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War-weariness sets in by 1780
British forces surrounded at Yorktown, Virginia
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Treaty at Peace of Paris concluded in 1783
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French Navy prevents British Navy from intervening
Cornwallis surrenders on October 19, 1781
Recognition of American independence
Tremendously favorable to the U.S.
1787 Constitution of the United States drafted
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Political and legal equality for men of property
11
Building an Independent State
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1787 Constitution of the United States drafted in
Philadelphia
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Ratified in 1788, leading to first presidential election held from
Dec. 15, 1788 to Jan. 10, 1789; Washington unopposed
Replaces the weak Articles of Confederation government, which
had no executive branch or means to collect taxes.
Emphasizes political and legal equality for men of property
For the purpose of determining political representation in the
House of Representatives, it counts slaves as “three-fifths” of a
human being.
Bill of Rights proposed by James Madison in First Congress in
1789 and were ratified as the first ten amendments to the
Constitution by 1791
12
Building an Independent State
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Bill of Rights (adopted 1791)
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First - Free Speech
Second - State militias and right to bear arms
Third - Protection from quartering troops
Fourth - Protection from unreasonable search and seizure
Fifth - Requiring due process, disallows double jeopardy or self-incrimination, and
requires compensation for eminent domain.
Sixth - Pertains criminal trials: right to trial by jury, rights of the accused, and right to
counsel
Seventh - Civil trial procedure
Eighth - Prohibits excessive bail or cruel and unusual punishment
Nine - Protection of rights not enumerated in the Constitution: if there not there, it doesn’t
mean they don’t exist.
Tenth - Rights not given to the U.S. government in the Constitution are given over the
states.
13
The French Revolution
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Serious fiscal problems in France
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War debts crush French economy in 1780s
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Fifty percent of tax revenues to war debts
Twenty-five percent of tax revenues to military
Greater degree of social inequality in France than in the
thirteen colonies that became the U.S.
Leads to revolution more radical than the
American one
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Repudiation of many aspects of the ancien régime
Execution of the king and anti-Church violence
14
The Estates General
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Estates General founded 1303, but had not met since 1614
Louis XVI calls it into session on May 5, 1789, to address
massive financial problems and unwillingness of nobility
to pay taxes.
Three Estates
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First estate: Roman Catholic clergy
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Second estate: nobles
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400,000
Third estate: everyone else
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100,000
24,000,000 serfs, free peasants, urban residents
One vote per estate
15
1789: The Revolution Underway
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Third estate demands greater social change
First and Second refuse to budge
In June, third estate secedes from Estates General
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Renamed “National Assembly”
In July, mob attacks the
Bastille in Paris, a hated
symbol of royal authority;
bloody battle won by mob
16
Declaration of the Rights of Man and
the Citizen
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Adopted by the National Assembly on August 26,
1789
American influence
Equality of men
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Women not included: Olympe de Gouges (Marie
Gouze) unsuccessfully attempts to redress this in 1791
(eventually guillotined)
Sovereignty resides in the people
Individual rights articulated and written down
17
Radicalization of Revolution
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“Liberty, equality, fraternity” becomes revolutionary
slogan
New constitution created in 1791 that retains the king,
but subject to legislative authority and convenes a
new Legislative Assembly: constitutional monarchy
June 1791: The King and Queen try to flee to Austria,
but are captured; increasingly the left—the
Jacobins—see them as traitors
New Legislative Assembly seizes church lands,
redefines clergy as civilians
April 1792: Guillotine introduced a more humane and
socially equalizing method of execution
18
Radicalization of Revolution
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Ending the Monarchy: In August 1792, a Parisian mob invades the
royal palace in Paris, the Tuileries, and demands the monarchy end
Convention: In response, the Legislative Assembly calls for a
convention to create a new constitution without a king. This body is
elected by universal male suffrage and becomes revolutionary
France’s executive power, and is more radical than its previous
legislative bodies
Country at War: In 1792, France declares war on Austria, and soon
Prussia joins Austria; Prussian and Austrians invade France in
August, but are turned back by the French in September at Valmy.
Levée en masse: Government encourages mass conscription for war;
beginnings of a true French nationalism to defend la patrie
1793 Executions: King Louis is executed in January and Queen
Marie Antoinette follows him October; these acts turn all of Europe
against France. Britain and Netherlands join the fight against
France.
19
Maximilien Robespierre (1758-1794)
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“The Incorruptible,” leader of
the Committee of Public Safety
Leader of Jacobin party
Dominated Convention, 1793-1794
Churches closed, priests forced to
marry
 Promoted “cult of reason” as secular
alternative to Christianity
Calendar reorganized: Ten-day weeks, 1792 is
proclaimed Year I
Executed 40,000; imprisoned 300,000
20
Execution and Terror
Execution of Louis XVI on Jan. 21, 1792
Anti-Robespierre political cartoon:
Robespierre executing the executioner
21
Revolutionary Calendar
Names of Months:
 Autumn: Vendémiaire, Brumaire, Frimaire
 Winter: Nivôse, Pluviôse,Ventôse
 Spring: Germinal, Floréal, Prairial
 Summer: Messidor, Thermidor, Fructidor
British Parody:
 Autumn: Wheezy, Sneezy, Freezy
 Winter: Slippy, Drippy, Nippy
 Spring: Showery, Flowery, Bowery
 Summer: Hoppy, Croppy, Poppy
22
The Directory (1795-1799)
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French population tire of Robespierre’s “Reign of
Terror”; want more stability
1794 Robespierre arrested and beaten, then sent to
guillotine
Men of property take power in the form of the
Directory
Unable to solve economic and military problems
of revolutionary France
23
Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821)
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From minor Corsican noble family
Army officer under King Louis XVI,
general at age 24
Brilliant military strategist
Overthrew Directory in 1799
Established new government, the Consulate
Crowned himself emperor in 1802
24
Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821)
Coronation of Napoleon (1805-1807) by Jacques Louis-David
25
Napoleonic France
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Agreement with Pope: Concordat (1801)
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1804 promulgates Napoleonic Code
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France retains church lands, but pay salaries to clergy
Freedom of religion, also for Protestants, Jews
Patriarchal authority: made father the ruler of the
household, also made property rights absolute
Became model for many civil codes in conquered areas
across Europe
Tight control on newspapers, use of secret police
26
Napoleon’s Empire
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Conquered Iberian, Italian peninsulas, Netherlands
Forced Austria and Prussia to enter into alliance
Disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812
Burned Moscow, but defeated by Russian weather
British, Austrian, Prussian, and Russian armies force
Napoleon to abdicate in 1814
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Exiled to Mediterranean Island of Elba, escaped to take
power again for 100 days
Defeated by British at Waterloo, exiled to remote South
Pacific island of St. Helena and dies there in 1821
27
Napoleon’s Empire in 1812
28
The Revolution in Haiti
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Only successful slave revolt
Island of Hispaniola
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Spanish colony Santo Domingo in east (now
Dominican Republic)
French colony of Saint-Domingue in west (now Haiti)
Rich Caribbean colony
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Sugar, coffee, cotton
Almost one-third of France’s overseas trade
29
Society in Saint-Domingue
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40,000 white French settlers
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28,000 gens de couleur (free people of color, i.e.
mixed-race, freed slaves)
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Dominated social structure
Holders of small plots
500,000 slaves
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High mortality rate, many flee to mountains
“Maroons,” escaped slaves
30
The Revolt
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Inspired by American and French revolutions
 500 gens de couleur sent to fight British in American War
of Independence
1789 white settlers demand self-rule, but with no equality for
gens de couleur
1791 civil war breaks out
Slaves revolt under Vodou priest named Boukman
French, British, Spanish forces attempt to intervene
French forces dealt major setback by Toussaint and Yellow
Fever in 1798
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François-Dominique Toussaint
(1744-1803)
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Renames himself Louverture (“the
opening”) in 1791
Descendant of slaves, freed in 1776
Helped his original owners escape,
then joined rebel forces
Built army of 20,000, eventually dominated Saint-Domingue
1801 promulgated constitution of equality
1802 forced to surrender to Napoleon’s forces and was
captured, died in the dungeon of a remote fortress in France in
1803
French troops driven out, 1804 Haiti declares independence
32
Latin American Society
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30,000 peninsulares, colonial officials from
Iberian peninsula
3.5 million criollos (creoles), born in the
Americas of Spanish or Portuguese descent
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Privileged class, but grievances with peninsulares
1810-1825 led movements for creole-dominated
republics
10 million others
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African slaves, mixed-race populations
33
Mexican Independence
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Napoleon’s invasion of Spain and
Portugal (1807) weakens royal authority
in colonies
Priest Miguel de Hidalgo (1753-1811) leads revolt
 Hidalgo captured and executed, but rebellion continues
Creole general Augustín de Iturbide (1783-1824) declares
independence in 1821
 Installs self as emperor, deposed in 1823, republic
established
Southern regions form federation, then divide into Guatemala,
El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica
34
Simón Bolívar
(1783-1830)
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Led independence movement
in South America
Native of Caracas (Venezuela),
influenced by Enlightenment, George Washington
Rebels against Spanish rule 1811, forced into hiding
Forms alliances with many creole leaders
 José de San Martín (Argentina, 1778-1850)
 Bernardo O’Higgins (Chile, 1778-1842)
Spanish rule destroyed in South America by 1825
35
Gran Colombia
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Bolívar hoped to form a U.S.-style federation
Venezuela, Columbia, Ecuador form Gran
Colombia
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Attempts to bring in Peru and Bolivia
Strong political differences force Gran Colombia
to begin to disintegrate in 1826: “All who have
served the Revolution have plowed the sea.”
Bolívar goes was about to go into exile in Europe,
but dies of tuberculosis in 1830 at age 47
36
Brazilian Independence
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Napoleon’s invasion sends Portuguese royal court
to exile in Rio de Janeiro
1821, king returns to Portugal, his son Pedro left
behind as regent
Pedro negotiates with creoles, declares
independence of Brazil—no violent revolution
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Becomes Emperor Pedro I (r. 1822-1834)
Social structure remains largely intact
37
Latin America in 1830
38
Emergence of Ideologies
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Reactions and responses to French Revolution largely create our modern
thinking about political ideology
Conservatism
 Edmund Burke (England, 1729-1797)
 Disavowed rapid revolutionary change; horrified by French Revolution
but in favor of the American one
 Favored slow evolution of society
Liberalism
 Sees conservatives as defenders of an illegitimate status quo
 Advocates managing, not stifling, social change
 John Stuart Mill (England, 1806-1873): formulated a theory of liberty,
advocated human rights, women’s rights, and stood against slavery
39
The End of the Slave Trade
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Campaign to end slavery begins in eighteenth
century
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Olaudah Equiano (1745-1797)
Gains momentum after American, French and
Haitian revolutions
William Wilberforce (England, 1759-1833),
philanthropist, succeeds in having Parliament
outlaw slave trade, 1807
Other states follow suit, but illegal trade continues
until 1867
40
End of the Institution of Slavery
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Haiti: slavery ends with revolution
Mexican slavery abolished 1829
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Partially to stop U.S. development of slave-based
cotton industry in Mexico
1833 Britain abolishes slavery, offers
compensation to former owners
Other states follow, but offer freedom without
equality
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Property requirements, literacy tests, etc. block voting
41
Enlightenment Ideals and Women
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Enlightenment thinkers remained conservative regarding
women’s rights
 Rousseau argues women should receive education to
prepare for lives as wives and mothers
Mary Astell (England, 1666-1731) argues that women
essentially born into slavery; uses Lockean argument
Mary Wollstonecraft (England, 1759-1797)
 A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792): Women
could contribute as much to society as women if they
were given the same access to education
42
Women and Revolution
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Women active in all phases of French revolution
 Women storm Versailles in 1789, demands for food
 Republican Revolutionary Women patrol streets of Paris with
firearms
Yet hold few official positions of authority
Revolution grants equality in education, property, legalized
divorce
Yet women not allowed to vote, major task of nineteenth century
 Elizabeth Cady Stanton (U.S., 1815-1902): Was first an
abolitionist, but then became a crusader for women’s rights
when she was denied entrance to a abolitionist conference in
London
43
Nations and Nationalism
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“Nation” a type of community, especially
prominent in nineteenth century
Distinct from clan, religious, regional identities
Usually based on shared language, customs,
values, historical experience
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Sometimes common religion
Idea of nation has immediate relationship with
political boundaries
44
Types of Nationalism
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Cultural nationalism
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Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744-1803) praises the
Volk (“people”)
Literature, folklore, music as expressions of Volksgeist:
“spirit of the people”
Political nationalism
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Movement for political independence of nation from
other authorities
Unification of national lands
Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872), “Young Italy”
45
Nationalism and Anti-Semitism
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Nationalist ideologies distrustful of indigenous minorities
Pogroms, violent attacks on Jewish communities in
Russian empire beginning 1881: Jews excluded from the
“nation”
Anti-Semitism rallying cry of many European nationalists
French military Captain Alfred Dreyfus framed for selling
military secrets to Germany,
convicted in 1894
Eventually exonerated, but great
debate on loyalty of Jews in European
societies
46
Zionism
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Theodor Herzl (Austria, 1860-1904) journalist at
Dreyfus trial
Observed intense anti-Semitism of mobs in Paris,
concluded that the Enlightenment and revolution
could not solve this human ill
Worked to create refuge for Jews by
re-establishing Jewish state in Palestine
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Zion synonymous with Jerusalem
1897 convened first World Zionist Organization
47
The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)
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Meeting after defeat of Napoleon
Prince Klemens von Metternich (Austria, 17731859) supervises dismantling of Napoleon’s
empire
Established balance of power
Worked to suppress development of nationalism
among multi-national empires like the Austrian
48
Nationalist Rebellions
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Greeks in Balkan peninsula seek independence
from Ottoman Turks in 1821
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With European help, Greece achieves independence in
1830
Rebellions all over Europe, especially in 1848
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Rebels take Vienna, Metternich resigns and flees
But rebellions put down by 1849
France: Napoleon III stages a coup d’état by 1851.
49
Unifications of Italy and Germany
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Italy and Germany formerly disunited groups of
regional kingdoms, city-states, ecclesiastical
states
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Germany: over three hundred semiautonomous
jurisdictions
Nationalist sentiment develops idea of unification
Count Camillo di Cavour (1810-1861) and
Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882) unify Italy under
King Vittore Emmanuele II
50
Unifications of Italy and Germany
Idealized image of Giuseppe Garibaldi
51
The Unification of Italy and Germany
52
Unifications of Italy and Germany
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Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898)
advances Realpolitik (“the politics
of reality”), and uses wars with
neighbors to unify Germany
Second Reich proclaimed in 1871
(Holy Roman Empire the first),
King Wilhelm I named emperor
53