Transcript The Road to War

The Road to War
The 18th and 19th Century
 Much changed
 Socially, economically, and culturally
 But certain assumptions remained constant
 Until 20th century, when new ideas emerged
The Old Assumptions
18th and 19th century
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Science unlocks the mysteries of the universe
Society moving towards progress
Individuals could improve themselves if they tried
Universe like a machine
Could be explained through reason, science
Universe is orderly
Provided comfort to Western world
But New Developments
 In science
 Arts
 Philosophy
 Shattered the old assumptions
 Slowly formed new assumptions
Marie and
Pierre Curie
1918 discovered
radium
Launched new physics
Subatomic particles
moved in random and
unexplainable ways
Challenged old
assumption of
mechanistic and
explainable universe
Albert
Einstein
Relativity theory
Space and time
not absolute, as
Newton thought
Universe not a
machine, operating
independently of
humans
Friedrich
Nietzsche
Glorified the
irrational
Western society
decadent, lacked
creativity
Humans by
nature irrational
Nietzsche
 Blamed Christianity
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Emphasized humility and morality
Held humans back
Crushed human will
 God = dead
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Man should not accept rational cosmic order
Irrational could liberate human spirit
Nietzsche
 Advocated “superman”
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Brilliant few
Rejected western/Christian assumptions
Including rejection of democracy and social reform
Masses cannot reform themselves
“Supermen” formed new morality
Led the masses into the right directions
Basically advocating a dictator
Nazis relied heavily on his work in later decades
Sigmund
Freud
oPsychiatrist
oHumans not
driven solely by
rational forces
oStrongly
influenced by
unconscious/
subconscious forces
that they are not
aware of
Social Darwinism
 Pioneered by Herbert Spencer
 Applied Darwinist scientific ideas to society
Social Darwinism
 Society = organism
 Some members fit
 Some unfit
 Fit will rise to the top, unfit will fall to the bottom
 Progress comes from the fit
Social Darwinism
 “Fit” meant those who improved society
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Wealthy/middle-class
Inventors, thinkers, scientists
Teachers, writers, musicians
They lead to social progress
So should be on top of society
 “Unfit” = those who did not
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Would not literally die out
But would remain at the bottom of society
That is their natural place
Scientific Racism
 Took it one step further
 Certain races supposedly biologically inferior
 Not just culturally backwards
 But genetically inferior
 Could never be improved, made equal
Scientific Racism
 Assumed white race was superior
 Some specified Aryans (Germans)
 All others inferior
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Blacks, Asians, Latins, Slavs
Jews (especially according to Germans)
Modernist Literature
 Emphasized despair of humans
 No sense of optimism or ability of improvement
 Objective knowledge of nature impossible
Modernist Art
 Impressionism, Post-impressionism, Cubism
 Artistic differences between them
 But all seemed incomplete, but on purpose
 All focused on individual’s impression
 Not universal truth
 But truth as individual sees it
Modernist Art
Claude Monet
(Impressionism)
Paul Cezanne (PostImpressionism)
Modernist Art
Vincent van Gogh (PostImpressionism)
Pablo Picasso (Cubism)
New Assumptions
By 20th century
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World unknowable
Focus more on uncertainty
Universe not as tidy, neat, and clean as previously assumed
Faith in knowledge, reason shattered
Faith in improvability of society questioned
Political Uncertainty
 Spilled over to political and social world
 Role of women?
 Jews?
 Other races?
 World peace?
The Woman Question
 Women’s rights
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To own property as individuals
To gain legal personhood
So woman would be an individual in the eyes of the law
Not just some man’s wife, daughter, or mother
Rights to divorce
And of course to vote
Suffragists
Strongest in Western
Europe and US
Often battled police
(literally)
Eventually prevailed
but mostly after WWI
Educational ... But Fun
Suffragist song from Mary Poppins
Sister Suffragette Sing Along - YouTube
The Woman Question
 New professions
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Poor women already working in factories
But many middle and upper-class women sought work
And college degrees
Teachers, social workers
Nursing the big profession
Middle/upper class professions = The New Woman
Jews in Europe
 19th century had enjoyed progress
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Liberal reforms
Integrated into society
Banking, medicine
Most grew middle to upper class
Some elected to office
Jews in Europe
 But began to reverse around 1900 and beyond
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Growing right-wing racism and nationalism
Many thought of nation through racial lens
Example… “Germany” = Germans
And therefore not Jews
Growing sense of anti-Semitism
Strong in Germany, Austria, France
The Dreyfus Affair
 Alfred Dreyfus
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French military officer
Convicted of treason
On bogus evidence
 Evidence proven to be forged
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Proved Catholic aristocrat = culprit
But military convicted Dreyfus a second time
Public outrage
Finally exonerated after 10 years
The Dreyfus Affair
 French conservatives/nationalists
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Dreyfus = traitor
Saw France = military
Assault on military = assault on France itself
Liberals and Jews trying to destroy France
Did not matter than Dreyfus was innocent
Integrity of nation/military > truth/justice
Jews in Europe
 Anti-Semitism
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Particularly strong in Russia
72% of Jews lived in eastern Europe
Organized pogroms (massacres of Jews)
Roughly 25,000 Jews left Russia each year
Many to the US and Canada
And many to Palestine
Gave rise to Zionist movement
Zionist
Movement
Calls for Jewish
homeland in
Palestine
Site of ancient
Israel
Supported by
wealthy Jews and
non-Jewish liberals
Progressive Liberalism
 Some liberals rejected classical liberalism
 Around 1900
 Sought a new liberalism
 Progressive liberalism (or modern liberalism)
Progressive Liberalism
 Rejected laissez-faire economics, limited government
 Advocated big government
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Regulation of businesses
Welfare for poor
High taxes on the rich
 Rejected anti-government liberalism of Locke and Smith
Tension in Germany
 Most industrialized in Europe
 Strongest military too
 Strong workers’ parties
 Progressive liberalism strong
 Many middle/upper class conservatives growing angry
 Did not like direction of Germany
 Turning towards racial nationalism
Tension in Austria
 Still suffering problems
 From ethnic minorities within Empire
 Demanding autonomy from Vienna
 Also problems with factory workers
Tension in Russia
 Greater industrialization
 Workers agitated for reforms (as elsewhere)
 Socialism growing fast
 Liberals in middle-class sought changes
 Peasants starving, held back
 Problems got worse after 1905
Russia
 Russo-Japanese War 1904-5
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Japan beat Russia, stunning
Asians not supposed to beat Europeans
Brought problems to forefront
 Revolution 1905
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Many different groups
Fought for different reasons
But all opposed same oppressive system
Revolution 1905
 Nicholas II gave in
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Created a parliament (Duma)
Civil liberties
Russia going towards liberalism
 But short-lived
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Reversed those reforms within a few years
Czar Nicholas II still absolutist ruler
Expansion of Imperialism
 Europeans already empires
 Held colonies, overseas territories
 But intensified efforts in late 19th century
 Especially in Africa and Asia
Justifications for Imperialism
 Economic growth
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Territories = foreign markets for their goods
Can obtain raw materials
Business investments in territories
Justifications for Imperialism
 Economic growth
 Social Darwinism
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Fit nation must prevail
Unfit will be subjected to stronger, fit nations
Survival of the fittest
Justifications for Imperialism
 Economic growth
 Social darwinism
 Nationalism
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Demonstrate glories, strength of nation
Nationalism = militarism
Conquest best way to do so
Justifications for Imperialism
 Economic growth
 Social darwinism
 Nationalism
 National unity
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Can lessen social divisions back home
Ethnic, racial, class, gender
All of the nation can stand together against foreign enemy
Justifications for Imperialism
 Economic growth
 Social darwinism
 Nationalism
 National unity
 White Man’s Burden
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Coined by Rudyard Kipling
White nations = superior
Have duty to help out unfit (non-white) nations
Bring them civilization, Christianity, progress, western values
Where Did They Go?
 Western World took over much of world
 Africa
 Most of Asia
 Pacific islands
 Latin America/Caribbean (mostly by the US)
Africa
Entire continent,
except Liberia and
Ethiopia, controlled by
Europeans
Massive warfare, cruel
and oppressive rule
Tried to impose
western culture on
natives
Asia
Europeans
present here for
centuries
But now tighter
control
Attempted to
impose western
culture
China
Technically
independent, but
controlled by
outside nations
Playground for
outside empires
Responses to Imperialism
 Blowback
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Terrorist attacks
Native uprisings against outside invaders
Terrorism = fight against perceived oppression
 War and terrorism = Price of empire
 Boxer Rebellion just one example of many
Boxer Rebellion
 China deeply traditional
 Resented outside interference
 And loss of culture
 Conservative, traditionalists = Boxers
 Rebelled against outsiders and westernized Chinese
Boxer Rebellion
 Murdered foreigners and their native allies
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Missionaries
Political/military leaders
Railroad workers
Foreign business owners
Put down by western nations, especially US
 Imperial government overthrown
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By socialist regime
But China still controlled by westerners and Japan
But Some Accepted Imperialism
Some natives gained under foreign imperialism
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Jobs in new regime
Educational opportunities
European investments led to business opportunities
Some natives closely tied to mother-country
Felt connected to empire more than to other natives
European Empires
 Turned more competitive, aggressive
 Saw other empires as dangerous, threats
 More militarism
 More anxiety
 All set the stage for WWI
Ottoman Empire (in 1850)
Ottoman Empire
 Part Middle Eastern
 Part European
 But began to decline in late 19th century
The Balkans
Issue
Both Russia and
Austria sought
Balkans
Russia --- route
to Mediterranean
Austria --- more
territory for itself
The Balkans Issue
 Russo-Turkish War 1877-78, Russia successful
 International peace agreement
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Bulgaria and Romania independent
Serbia, Montenegro independent
Bosnia and Herzegovina under Austrian control
Not ownership, just administration
Austria could not annex into empire
New Alliances Formed
 Triple Alliance
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Germany, Austria, Italy
Saw Russia as chief enemy
So friends with each other
New Alliances Formed
 Triple Entente
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Britain, France, Russia
Saw Germany and Austria as chief enemy
So friends with each other
 Both sides increasingly inflexible, uncompromising
 Moving closer to war
Serbia, a
Rising Nation
Sought to rise in
status
Wanted Serbian
empire throughout
Balkans
Chief enemy =
Austria
Balkans Crisis, 1908-13
 1908, Austria annexed Bosnia, Herzegovina
 Illegal under international agreement of 1877-8
 Angered Serbia
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Serbian coveted those provinces for itself
 Russia too, saw itself as protector of Slavic people
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Against Austrian domination
Serbian
Ambitions
Sought control of
Albania
Access to sea
Austria refused,
insisted on
independent
Albania
Austrian – Serbian Clash
 Austria feared strong Serbia
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Would prevent Austrian take-over of Balkans
 Serbia hated Austria
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Chief barrier to Serbian greatness
Russia, France, Britain moving closer to Serbia
Problems 1870 - 1914
 Imperialism
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Empires enemies with one another
No sense of European identity
Growing conflict, aggressiveness, competitiveness
Problems 1870 - 1914
 Militarism
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Huge expansion of military
Looking for an excuse to use it
Problems 1870 - 1914
 Alliances
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All found allies to back them in a war with a common enemy
Problem – dispute between 2 nations will involve multiple
Domino effect
Tensions for Decades
 Everyone knew a world war was coming
 And that it would start in the Balkans
 The trouble spot of the day
 Especially because of rivalry of Serbia and Austria
 Akin to Middle East of today
The Spark
Assassination of
Franz Ferdinand,
1914, Sarajevo
Price and heir to
Austrian throne
Bosnian terrorist
group, Black Hand,
advocated Serbian
nationalism
WWI
 Austria declared war on Serbia
 Alliances came into play
 Dispute between two nations turned larger
 Involved more players
 But Italy soon jumped sides…. To England
WWI (19148)
Allies --- England,
France, Italy,
Russia, Serbia, US
(in 1917)
Central Powers ---
Germany, AustriaHungary, Ottoman
Empire
Others neutral
Fighting the War
 Nationalist agenda
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Soldiers told they were fighting for the nation
Nationalism now a mania
It was their duty to the nation to kill the enemy
Fighting the War
 Trench warfare
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Very aggressive, rough style of fighting
Huge casualties
Horrible experience
Fighting the War
 Stalemate on the western front
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For most of the war
Neither side really gaining on the other
Slaughters continued
With no end of war in sight
Fighting the War
 Worldwide war
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Empires were at war
So then were their colonies abroad
Fighting in Europe, Asia, Africa
Fighting the War
 Modern war
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New technologies
War more horrific than previous
Tanks
Biological warfare (gas, viruses)
Airplanes (just beginning)
Fighting the War
 Total war
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War not just for soldiers
Everyone played a role
Women, children, old men back on homefront
Factories produced goods for war effort
Goods rationed, needed for war, not personal use back home
Fighting the War
 Massive role for government
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Production controlled by government
Not free markets at all
Transportation, phones, telegraphs nationalized
Became government property
Wartime socialism
Fighting the War
 Loss of civil liberties
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Breaking rations major offenses, sometimes executed
Dissent illegal
Even in US, criticism of war became prohibited
Massive levels of propaganda
Problems in Russia
 Lots of tension in Russia
 Exacerbated by high casualties in WWI
 War very unpopular
 Nicholas II unpopular as well
Problems in Russia
 Most hated Czarina Alexandra
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Foreign (German-born)
Seemed uncaring, unsympathetic to those suffering
 And her mystic advisor, Rasputin
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Too much influence over government policy
Assassinated by nobles in 1917
The Russian Revolution
 March 1917
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Nicholas abdicated
Provisional government established
Democratic, liberal, western-style government
But remained committed to WWI
Satisfied some, but not others
Not radical enough
The Russian Revolution
 Radicals sought more
 Led by Bolshevik Party, especially Vladimir Lenin
 Pushed for Marxist revolution
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Violent overthrow of capitalism, old order
Introduction of communist order
The “Red Army”
Eventually succeeded
Civil War in Russia
 Communists (Bolsheviks)
Versus
 Non-communists
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Did not always agree amongst themselves
But all opposed Lenin
Communist State in Russia
 Withdrew from WWI before it ended
 Lost some territories to Germany
 Parts of Poland, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania
 Began process of communist system
End of WWI
 US entry greatly aided Allies
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Industrial giant
Huge population
Fresh troops
 WWI finally ended November 1918
Revolution in Germany
 At end of war
 Overthrew Kaiser
 Introduced democratic republic
 Basically socialist (but not communist)
Revolution in Austria
 Ethnic minorities pushed for independence
 By end of war, empire had fallen apart
Treaty of Versailles (1919)
 War guilt clause
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Germany blamed for WWI
Treaty of Versailles (1919)
 Reparations
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Germany to pay reparations to allied nations
But in reality England, France took $$$ for themselves
Treaty of Versailles (1919)
 Loss of territories
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Lost colonies in Africa and Asia
Also part of Germany itself
Treaty of Versailles (1919)
 Demilitarization
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Lost most of its army and navy
Able to keep about 10%
Redrawing the Map of Eastern Europe
 New countries formed
 Out of loss of Austrian, Russian, German lands
 England, France lumped together into new nation
 But natives did not always want to be lumped
 Created tensions that blew up decades later
Eastern
Europe
Take notice of
land swapping
And new nations
formed
The Middle
East
Ottoman Empire
dismembered
Heart of empire
became Turkey
Rest independent
or fell to European
control
England, France, the Middle East
 Allies had promised Ottoman lands independence
 Once war was over
 But lied ... Took parts for themselves
 -Arab resentment against western powers
The League of Nations
 Brainchild of US president Woodrow Wilson
 Akin to modern-day United Nations
 Major nations to send representatives to League
 Could solve problems diplomatically
 War only as last resort
The League of Nations
 Ultimately failed
 US never ratified Treaty of Versailles
 Or joined League
End of WWI … Beginning of WWII
 Germany harshly treated
 Austrian empire destroyed
 Italy felt cheated by England, France
 Lots of resentment brewing
 Planted the seeds to WWII
 WWII happened because of the way WWI ended