Transcript Chapter 23
Period IV: 1450-1750 A Review 1 Motives for European Exploration End of Mongolican peace! God Crusading zeal remained strong Franciscan, Dominican missionaries to India, Central Asia, & China Gold Precious spices were wanted in the east (Indian pepper, Chinese ginger) Silk & porcelain in Asia African gold, ivory, slaves Mansa Musa & Marco Polo! Glory Increase national & personal prestige 2 The Technology of Exploration Chinese rudder introduced in twelfth century Square sails replaced by triangular lateen sales Work better with cross winds Navigational instruments Astrolabe, quadrant, & the compass • Allows explorers to calculate latitude • Longitude could not be calculated Knowledge of winds, currents The volta do mar “Return through the sea” 3 Famous Explorers Prince Henry of Portugal Paves the way for the Age of Exploration Bartolomeu Dias Rounds Cape of Good Hope, enters Indian Ocean basin Christopher Columbus Finds a “new route” to “Asia” Vasco da Gama First European to reach India by sea Magellan Circumnavigates the globe 4 Exploration of the Pacific Sir Frances Drake (England) explores west coast of North America Vitus Bering (Russia) sails through Bering Strait James Cook (England) explores southern Pacific 5 The Trading Companies English East India Company & Dutch United East India Company (VOC) Privately owned ships, government support Empowered with right to engage in trade, build posts, even make war Exceptionally profitable 6 European Conquests in Southeast Asia Spanish conquer Philippines, name them after King Philip II Manila becomes major port city Influx of Chinese traders, highly resented by Spanish, Filipinos Frequent massacres throughout seventeenth, up to nineteenth century Significant missionary activity Dutch concentrate on spice trade in Indonesia Establish Batavia, trading post in Java Less missionary activity 7 The Seven Years’ War (17561763) Commercial rivalries between empires at sea Global conflict erupts: multiple theatres in Europe, India, Caribbean, North America North America: merges with French and Indian War, 1754-1763 British emerge victorious, establish primacy in India, Canada 8 9 Recovery in Western Europe: State Building China: centralized empire Europe: regional states Europe develops new taxes Italian states: bonds France: salt tax, sales tax England: hearth tax, head tax, plow tax Establish large standing armies French Louis XI (1461-1483) had army of 15,000 10 The Renaissance, 14th – 16th Century “Rebirth” of classical culture Italian artists use perspective Humanism – focus on the humanities, the rediscovery of classical Latin texts, emphasize an active lifestyle 11 The Protestant Reformation Martin Luther attacks Roman Catholic church practices, 1517 for indulgences, corruption, greed, politics, etc. Writes Ninety-Five Theses, rapidly reproduced with new printing technology Luther’s expanded critique Closure of monasteries, Bible in the vernacular, End of priestly authority (especially the pope), return to Biblical text for authority German princes interested Opportunities for assertion of local control Support for reform spreads throughout Germany Other Reformations England: King Henry VIII has conflict with pope over requested divorce England forms its own church France: John Calvin codifies Protestant teachings while in exile in Geneva Catholic Reformation – Council of Trent & the Jesuits Witch Hunts & Religious Wars Spanish Inquisition Witch hunts most prominent in regions of tension between Catholics and Protestants French Wars of Religion (1562-1598) The Spanish Armada, 1588 The Thirty Years War, 1618-1648 All of Europe is involved 1/3 of German population is lost Constitutional States England and the Netherlands develop institutions of popular representation England: constitutional monarchy Netherlands: republic Absolute Monarchies Theory of divine right of kings Louis XIV, The Sun King – Built the Palace of Versailles in France, placated nobles there Peter the Great of Russia – policy of westernization Catherine the Great – huge military expansion The European States System No imperial authority to mediate regional disputes Peace of Westphalia (1648) after Thirty Years’ War European states to be recognized as sovereign and equal Religious, other domestic affairs protected Balance of power tenuous Early Capitalism Private parties offer goods and services on a free market Private initiative, not government control Supply and demand determines prices Banks, stock exchanges develop in early modern period Joint-stock companies (English East India Company, VOC) Relationship with empire-building Medieval guilds discarded in favor of “putting-out” system; serfdom is discarded; nuclear families; gender changes Adam Smith The Copernican Universe Reconception of the Universe Reliance on second-century Greek scholar Claudius Ptolemy of Alexandria 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus of Poland breaks theory Notion of moving Earth challenges Christian doctrine The Scientific Revolution Copernican Model – Sun centered theory Johannes Kepler & Galileo Galilei reinforce Copernican model Isaac Newton revolutionizes study of physics with Laws of Motion & Law of Gravity Rigorous challenge to church doctrines The Enlightenment Trend away from Aristotelian philosophy and church doctrine in favor of rational thought and scientific analysis John Locke & Baron de Montesquieu attempt to discover natural laws of politics Center of Enlightenment: France, philosophes Deism increasingly popular The Spanish Caribbean Columbus uses Hispaniola (Haiti and Dominican Republic) as base for trading with Taíno Disappointed that Taíno had no spices, silks Recruit locals to mine gold instead Encomienda: forced labor Limited gold production causes new interest in exploiting Caribbean for sugarcane production Requires massive importation of slaves 22 Conquest of Mexico and Peru Spanish conquerors (conquistadores) explore other territories Cortez takes out the Aztecs & Pizarro takes out the Incas Disease Alliances Superior Weapons 23 Spanish Colonial Administration Spanish administration based in New Spain (Mexico) and New Castile (Peru), extended to Florida and Buenos Aires Viceroys rule, but supervised by local courts called audiencias designed to prevent buildup of local power bases Considerable dispute with Spanish homeland 24 Portuguese Brazil 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas divides entire (non-Christian) world between Spain and Portugal Portugal claims Brazil Little interest at first, but increases as other imperial powers take notice Exploited for sugarcane production 25 The Formation of Multicultural Societies European, African migrants primarily men Relationships with native women formed Mestizo (mixed) societies formed People of Spanish and native parentage Descendants of Spaniards and African slaves (“mulattoes”) Descendants of African slaves and natives (“zambos”) Less pronounced in Peru 26 The Social Hierarchy Race-based hierarchy Top: peninsulares, i.e. migrants from Iberian peninsula Criollos (creoles), i.e. children of migrants Mestizos, mulattoes, zambos, other combinations of parentage Bottom: slaves, conquered peoples Defining factor in social standing: race 27 Mining in the Spanish Empire Hunt for gold and silver Conquistadores loot Aztec, Inca treasures and melt them down for their value as raw precious metals Gold not extensive in Spanish holdings, but silver relatively plentiful Extensive employment of natives • Inca, mita system of conscripted labor Eventually assimilate into Spanish culture Fifth reserved for crown (quinto), hugely 28 profitable Global Significance of Silver Major resource of income for Spanish crown Manila galleons take it to the Pacific rim for trading Very popular with Chinese markets Also trade in the Atlantic basin 29 The Hacienda Large estates produce products of European origin Wheat, grapes, meat Encomienda system of utilizing native labor force Rampant abuses 1520-1540 Gradually replaced by debt peonage Peasants repay loans with cheap labor 30 Sugar and Slavery in Portuguese Brazil Unlike Spanish system of forced native labor, Portuguese rely on imported African slaves Natives continually evaded Portuguese forces Large-scale importing of slaves begins 1580s Working conditions poor: 5-10% die annually Approximately one human life per ton of sugar 31 Missionary Activity in the Americas Franciscan, Dominican, Jesuit missionaries from sixteenth century Due to conquest and plague, many natives in Spanish America concluded gods had abandoned them; converted to Catholicism Often retained elements of pagan religion in Christian worship 32 Development of Cash Crops Products developed for European markets Tobacco Rice Cotton Increases demand for imported slave labor European indentured servants, 4- to 7-year terms 33 Colonial Government in North America Exceptionally difficult conditions Starvation rampant, cannibalism occasionally practiced French and English private merchants invest heavily in expansion of colonies Greater levels of self-government than Spanish and Portuguese colonies North American peoples loosely organized, migratory 34 Unlike Aztec, Inca empires North American Societies Higher ratio of French, English female migrants than in South America Higher social stigma attached to relationships with natives, African slaves Fur traders have relationships with North American native women Children: métis 35 Slavery in North America African slaves in Virginia from 1619 Increasingly replace European indentured laborers, late seventeenth to early eighteenth centuries Less prominent in north due to weak nature of cash-crop industry Slave trading still important part of economy Also, products made through slave labor • Rum, based on sugar from plantations 36 French and English Missions Less effective than Spanish missions Spaniards ruled native populations more directly Migration patterns of North American natives made it more difficult to conduct missions English colonists had little interest in converting natives 37 Australia and the Larger World Dutch sailors make first recorded sighting of Australia in 1606 VOC surveys territory, conclude it is of little value Limited contact with indigenous peoples Nomadic, fishing and foraging societies British Captain James Cook lands at Botany Bay, 1770 Convicts shipped to Australia, outnumber free settlers until 1830 38 Pacific Islands and the Larger World Manila galleons interested in quick trade routes, little exploration of Pacific Islands of Guam and the Marianas significant, lay on trade routes 1670s-1680s took control of islands, smallpox destroys local population James Cook visits Hawai`i in 1778 Good relationship with Hawaiians Sailors spread venereal disease Cook not welcomed in 1779, killed in dispute over petty thefts 39 Songhay Empire Sunni Ali became the ruler in 1464 and expanded his territory Took over Timbuktu and instituted repressive policies against some of the scholars there Would be later conquered by Moroccan forces with firearms… unheard of in SubSaharan Africa at that time Africans and the Atlantic Slave Trade Slavery was around before the Europeans, just ask the Muslim traders in the north and on the Indian Ocean, but why Africa? Native Americans kept dying and Europeans didn’t want to work the fields, so Africans fit the bill Also, slave labor was for life unlike indentured servants Triangular Trade African Presence in the Americas With few exceptions Africans were not able to transplant their languages to the Americas Most lost their languages after a generation since Europeans refused to speak it Religious syncretism, happened between the different African religions, and Christianity (i.e. Vodun in Haiti) Effects of the Slave Trade on Africa Gender distributions in Ghana and Benin became imbalanced since twothirds taken were men, leading to the practice of polygyny Economically those with firearms became wealthy and led to more fighting between the tribes Slowed the development of societies in Africa It did, however spur population growth and improve their diet through the Columbian Exchange The Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) Ming (“Brilliant”) dynasty comes to power after Mongol Yuan dynasty driven out Emperor Yongle & Zheng He Deeply conservative – looked to Tang & Song dynasties, adopt Chinese political and cultural tradition Powerful imperial state, maintain stability Civil service exams & gov’t staffed by Confucian scholars Adds to the Great Wall Eradicates Mongolian Past Emperors secluded in Forbidden City 45 The Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) Manchus forbid intermarriage, study of Manchu language by Chinese; force Manchu hairstyles as sign of loyalty 46 The “Son of Heaven” Ming, Qing emperors considered quasidivine Hundreds of concubines, thousands of eunuch servants Clothing designs and name characters forbidden to rest of population The kowtow: three bows, nine headknocks 47 The Civil Service Examinations Based on Confucianism Open only for men Government jobs Allowed for social mobility 48 Gender Relations Males receive preferential status Foot binding Economic factor: girls join husband’s family Infanticide common Widows strongly encouraged not to remarry Chaste widows honored with ceremonial arches Men control divorce Grounds: from infidelity to talking too much 49 Population Growth and Economic Development Only 11% of China arable Intense, garden-style agriculture necessary American food crops introduced in seventeenth century Maize, sweet potatoes, peanuts Rebellion and war reduce population in seventeenth century Offset by increase due to American crops 50 Foreign Trade Silk, porcelain, tea, lacquerware Chinese in turn import relatively little Spices, animal skins, woolen textiles Pay for exports with silver bullion from Americas After Emperor Yongle’s early maritime expeditions (1405-1433), Ming dynasty abandons large-scale maritime trade plans In part to appease southern populations 51 Trade in Southeast Asia Chinese merchants continue to be active in southeast Asia, especially Manila Extensive dealings with Dutch VOC 52 Government and Technology During Tang and Song dynasties (seventh to thirteenth century), China a world leader in technology Stagnates during Ming and Qing dynasties European cannons purchased, based on early Chinese invention of gunpowder Government suppressed technological advancement, fearing social instability would result Mass labor over productivity 53 Christianity in China Matteo Ricci (1552-1610), attempts to convert Ming Emperor Wanli Brought western mechanical technology • Prisms, harpsichords, clocks Few converts Emperor Kangxi bans Christianity 54 The Unification of Japan Tokugawa Ieyasu military government Establishes Tokugawa dynasty (1600-1867) Control daimyo (marriage, communication, alternate attendance) Shoguns begin restricting foreign relations around 1630s—isolationism for 200 years! Francis Xavier & anti-Christian campaign! The Dutch! 55 The Ottoman Empire (1289-1923) Turkey In Balkans, forced Christian families to surrender young boys to military service: devshirme Often grew up to be exceptionally loyal Janissaries (elite forces) • Social mobility! Mehmed II takes Constantinople in 1453 56 The Safavid Empire Iran Twelver Shiism Twelve infallible imams after Muhammad Twelfth imam in hiding, ready to take power Wore distinctive red hat, called qizilbash (“red heads”) Battle of Chaldiran (1514), Safavids don’t use gunpowder, sets borders of Ottoman & Safavid Empires 57 Shah Abbas the Great Revitalizes weakened Safavid empire Reforms administration, military Expands trade Military expansion Moved capital to Isfahan 58 The Mughal Empire India Zahir al-Din Muhammad (Babur the Tiger) gunpowder technology gives Babur advantage Founds Mughal (Persian for Mongol) dynasty Expands through most of Indian subcontinent 59 Akbar (r. 1556-1605) Grandson of Babur Created centralized government Destroyed Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar Religiously tolerant, promoted “divine faith” Syncretic form of Islam and Hinduism 60 Aurangzeb (r. 1659-1707) Expands Mughal empire into southern India Hostile to Hinduism Demolished Hindu temples, replaced with mosques Tax on Hindus to encourage conversion 61 Common Elements of Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires Empires based on military conquest (“gunpowder empires”) Prestige of dynasty dependent on piety and military prowess of the ruler Close relations with Sufism, ghazi tradition Steppe Turkish traditions Issuance of unilateral decrees Intra-family conflicts over power 62 Women and Politics Women officially banned from political activity But tradition of revering mothers, first wives from Chinggis Khan Süleyman the Magnificent defers to concubine Hürrem Sultana Originally Roxelana, Ukrainian woman 63 Agriculture and Trade American crops effect less dramatic change in Muslim empires Coffee, tobacco important Initial opposition from conservative circles, fearing lax morality of coffee houses Population growth also reflects territorial additions and losses Trade with English East India Company, 64 French East India Company, and Dutch VOC Religious Diversity Ottoman empire: Christians, Jews Safavid empire: Zoroastrians, Jews, Christians Mughal empire: Hindus, Jains, Zoroastrians, Christians, Sikhs Mughal Akbar most tolerant Received Jesuits politely, but resented Christian exclusivity Enthusiastic about syncretic Sikhism, selfserving “divine faith” 65 Status of Religious Minorities Non-Muslim protected people: dhimmi Payment of special tax: jizya Freedom of worship, property, legal affairs Ottoman communities: millet system of self-administration Mughal rule: Muslims supreme, but work in tandem with Hindus Under Akbar, jizya abolished Reaction under Aurangzeb 66 Capital Cities Istanbul cultural capital of Ottoman empire, massive monumental architecture Rededication of Hagia Sofia church as Aya Sofya mosque Isfahan major Persian city Akbar builds magnificent Fatehpur Sikri Chooses site without sufficient water supply, abandoned Taj Mahal example of Mughal architecture 67 Deterioration of Imperial Leadership Ottoman princes become lazy through luxury Selim the Sot, Ibrahim the Crazy Attempts to isolate them compounds the problem Religious tensions between conservatives and liberals intensify Wahhabi movement in Arabia denounces Ottomans as unfit to rule Force destruction of observatory, printing press Safavid Shiites persecute Sunnis, non-Muslims, and even Sufis 68 Economic and Military Decline Foreign trade controlled by Europeans Military, administrative network expensive to maintain Janissaries mutiny when paid with debased coinage, 1589; other revolts follow Unproductive wars European military technology advances faster than Ottomans can purchase it 69 Cultural Conservatism Europeans actively studying Islamic cultures for purposes of trade, missionary activities Islamic empires less interested in outside world Swiftly fell behind in technological development Printing of books in Turkish and Arabic forbidden until 1729 70