Transcript Nation States and Patterns of Culture in Europe and North America

CHAPTER 22
NATION STATES AND PATTERNS OF CULTURE
IN EUROPE AND NORTH AMERICA, 1750–1871
The Five “Great Revolutions”
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American
French
Mexican
Chinese
Russian
1776-1783
1789-1799 (1815?)
1910-1920 (1940?)
1911, 1946-1952
February 1917, October 1917
“Constitutional Nation-States”
• Early European “nation-states” (“fiscal-military states”)
– Monarchies controlling populations that generally had a
sense of nationhood and unity
– England/Britain, France, Germany, Russia
• The Seven Years War (1754 – 1763)
– The evolution of the “fiscal-military state”
– The fiscal-military-commercial-imperial state
• Commerce and international trade added to traditional
national rivalries.
• Seven Years’ War
– Britain and Prussia vs. France, Austria, Russia, and Spain
• Britain and France
– Borrowed from wealthy subjects.
– Passed burden to all subjects through higher taxes.
– Britain acquired France’s lands in
• India
• Canada
• Ohio-Mississippi Valley
• Britain’s “continental strategy”
replaced by a maritime or imperial strategy
• To pay for the war Britain needed:
• New taxes
• More effective (tighter) colonial management policies
• By 1763, North American colonies grown to c.
2,000,000 people
– New land required troops to protect settlers from Indians,
– And enforce new Indian policies.
– Proclamation Act of 1763 limited expansion into “Indian
Territory.”
American Revolution
• Stamp Act of 1765 placed a tax on all paper.
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Urban shopkeepers, merchants, and printers all opposed Act.
Colonial boycott of British goods.
Parliament dissolved Massachusetts’s assembly.
Samuel Adams and John Hancock organized opposition to taxes.
• Parliament lifted taxes except for Tea Tax, to establish sovereign
right to tax.
– Adams called for “No Taxation Without Representation.”
– Tea Tax opposed because it was a subsidy for the East India Company.
• Boston Tea Party in 1773 was a protest that led to British closing of
Boston harbor.
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American Revolution is actually a civil war.
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Middle classes with property and lower class masses
formed a coalition.
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Open warfare began when British troops tried to seize
arms belonging to Massachusetts
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Tom Paine’s Common Sense tips the balance toward
actual independence.
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Thomas Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence
expressed the basic ideas of the colonists.
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An emphasis on property ownership for broader right to “life,
liberty, and pursuit of happiness.”
• War of Independence led to a republic with less
representation than Parliament (according to your book).
• Control did remain in the hands of the same class of men
who had controlled the colonies before the war.
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The “bourgeoisie” and the landed gentry
The “Middle Class”
Voters had to be property holders
Property relatively easy to acquire however
• 1787 Constitutional Convention created a federal system
with three branches: legislative, executive, and judicial.
– Amendments in the Bill of Rights allowed for the system to
evolve.
French Revolution
• Prior to 1780s France had strong economy and
population growth.
– However, the French monarchy loaned money to
the American revolutionaries . . . now deeply in
debt.
– Poor harvests in 1786–1787 limited food
production.
• Latter stages of the “Little Ice Age”
• Icelandic vocanic eruptions
– Famine worsened by corruption and
mismanagement of food supplies.
The French Estates General
• A general assembly of the three “estates” of the
French population elected locally:
1. Clergy
2. Nobility
3. Common people
• Last called in 1614.
• Louis XIV called the Estates General to get
support for tax reform.
• In terms of delegates the Third Estate
– was equal to the 1st and 2nd together
– and much more diverse than the 1st and 2nd.
• Does the Estates General vote by Estate or as
a whole?
• Abbe Sieyès wrote “What is the Third Estate?”
– Argued that it represented the true “national will.”
• June 1789 Third Estate breaks off and creates
a National Assembly.
• Louis XVI mobilized troops around Paris and
declared himself the people’s representative.
• Parisians mobbed the Bastille and other
sources of arms.
1789–1792: Stage I of revolution . . .
• Began with the Great Fear
– Peasants rioted throughout France.
• Parisians marched on Versailles
– Forced Louis XIV to return to Paris and deal with
them.
• National Assembly declared the “Rights of Man
and of the Citizen.
– Catholic Church forced to be under state control.
– Constitutional monarchy created and old taxes
repudiated.
1792–1795 Stage II of revolution . . .
• Overturned the monarchy and created a radical
republic.
• Austria and Prussia invaded.
• National Assembly declares war on them instead.
• Republic declared
– King and Queen try to escape
– Executed
• Committee of Public Safety created.
– Reign of Terror.
– Robespierre and “sans-culottes” want to remove
opposition to revolution.
– Approximately 30,000 French citizens executed.
• Enforced Enlightenment ideas, such as deism in
the Cult of the Supreme Being.
– Calendar changed: ten-day week and new names for
months.
– Metric system implemented and old titles abolished.
– Alienated many supporters of the revolution.
• Robespierre executed in 1794 Thermidorean
Reaction.
• Created a new Directory, which was dependent
on the army.
Revolutionary Calendar
(30-day months beginning with the Fall equinox)
• Autumn:
– Vendémiaire ("grape harvest"), starting 22, 23 or 24 September
– Brumaire ("fog"), starting 22, 23 or 24 October
– Frimaire ("frost"), starting 21, 22 or 23 November
• Winter:
– Nivôse ("snowy"), starting 21, 22 or 23 December
– Pluviôse ("rainy"), starting 20, 21 or 22 January
– Ventôse ("windy"), starting 19, 20 or 21 February
• Spring:
– Germinal ("germination"), starting 20 or 21 March
– Floréal ("flower"), starting 20 or 21 April
– Prairial ("pasture"), starting 20 or 21 May
• Summer:
– Messidor ("harvest"), starting 19 or 20 June
– Thermidor ("summer heat"), starting 19 or 20 July
– Fructidor ("fruit"), starting 18 or 19 August
1795–1799: Third stage . . .
• Napoleon Bonaparte becomes the dominant figure in the
Directory
• In 1799 Napoleon deposed the Directory in favor of himself.
– Instituted new Civil Code in 1804, reformed French law.
– Crowned Emperor in 1804 and tried to conquer Europe.
• Effectively dominated Europe from 1806–1812.
• Major continuous opponent: Great Britain
• Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia formed an
alliance that led to Napoleon’s defeat at Waterloo in 1815.
1801
1810
• Estates General (1789)
The “Ancien Régime”
– Third Estate breaks away
– Declares itself the “National Assembly”
– Tennis Court Oath
• National Constituent Assembly (1789–1791)
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Legislative Assembly (1791–1792)
National Convention (1792–1795)
The Directory (1795–1799)
The Consulate (1799-1804)
• The “First Empire”
The “First Republic”
Enlightenment Culture:
Radicalism and Moderation
• “Age of Enlightenment” - c. 1650 - 1780
• Early Enlightenment shaped by the ideas of
Thomas Hobbes and John Locke.
– Represent the radical and the moderate branches of the
Enlightenment.
John Locke
1632 – 1704
Thomas Hobbes
1588 – 1679
• Hobbes thought passions were more powerful
than reason.
“Not believing in force is the same as not believing in gravitation.”
“The condition of man... is a condition of war of everyone against everyone.”
• Locke believed reason could control passions.
“Every man has a property in his own person. This nobody has a right to, but
himself.”
“The discipline of desire is the background of character.”
• Outside of England, Enlightenment writers
included Spinoza, Leibniz, and Montesquieu.
– Prior to 1750 these writers shared ideas and
writings with one another.
– Post 1750 Enlightenment ideas were popularized
in writing.
Voltaire
(François-Marie Arouet)
• . . . exemplified the
philosophe, a “thinker,”
in eighteenth-century France.
• Imprisoned in the Bastille
for insulting a nobleman.
• He was exiled to England,
where he observed constitutional monarchy.
• Also studied the “New Science” associated with Isaac
Newton.
• He returned to France, assembled a large library
and produced many of his 2,000 writings.
• Voltaire went to Prussia, to the court of Frederick
the Great, an “Enlightened Despot.”
• Voltaire as a vocal critic of the French monarchy
and the Catholic Church.
• Most famous text was the novel Candide, a satire
of corruption in government and religion.
Frederick II (1712 – 1786)
King in Prussia 1740–1786
“Frederick the Great“
(Friedrich der Große)
and
“Der Alte Fritz“
Denis Diderot . . .
• . . . editor of the Encyclopédie
(1751–1772) exemplified the
secular, scholarly, and artistic knowledge
popularized by the Enlightenment.
• Diderot was an independent writer, a new
Enlightenment occupation.
• Received a stipend from
Catherine the Great
of Russia.
• Diderot was an atheist and wanted to change
how the common man thought.
Sophie Friederike Auguste
von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg
Peter III
• Unlike Diderot, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and
Immanuel Kant believed in external moral forces.
– In the Social Contract, Jean Jacques Rousseau argued
that man began in a natural state but civilization had
imposed an external authority.
– This led to a decline for humanity, who could only
return to the natural state through direct democracy
of the “natural will.”
• Immanuel Kant, in East Prussia, argued for a
categorical imperative understanding of morality.
– The principle of one’s actions should be the principle
of anyone’s actions.
– Influenced the idea of basic human rights, and
universal freedoms.
“No man has any natural
authority over his fellow
men.”
Jean Jacques Rousseau
“Duty is the necessity to
act out of reverence for
the moral law set by the
categorical imperative.”
Immanuel Kant
Economics was a new scholarly discipline of the
Enlightenment.
• Best represented by Adam
Smith, a Scot, who believed in
markets free of regulations
and restrictions.
• Repudiated the mercantilism
of previous centuries.
• Adopted French theories
about a laissez-faire approach
to markets.
Writers and composers incorporated
Enlightenment ideas into their art.
• Goethe’s Faust was read as a metaphor for
modernity dominant over nature.
– Can knowledge give us ultimate joy?
• Schiller’s Ode to Joy celebrated the
Enlightenment ideal of unity of humanity.
Ode to Joy
Joy, bright spark of divinity,
Daughter of Elysium,
Fire-inspired we tread
Thy sanctuary.
Thy magic power re-unites
All that custom has divided,
All men become brothers
Under the sway of thy gentle wings.
Music
• The “Classical Period” in music (1730 – 1820)
• Joseph Haydn
– “Father” of the symphony and the string quartet
• Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
– Pushed the boundaries of “classical” music
– The Magic Flute
– The Marriage of Figaro
From “Classical” to “Romantic”
• Ludwig van Beethoven introduced
revolutionary compositions.
• Dedicated his 3rd (“Eroica”) Symphony to
Napoleon
– Felt betrayed by Napoleon’s crowning himself
Emperor and removed his name from the
dedication of the Eroica symphony.
Beethoven, 1770-1827
Mozart, 1756-1791
After Napoleon
• Ethnic nationalism drew on Enlightenment
ideas, which recognized a national identity
and the right for that nation to exist.
• Constitutional nationalists advocated for a
uniform language and ethnicity.
• Many European nations were linguistically and
ethnically diverse.
• Herder, a German philosopher, focused on
language as the core of nationalism.
– Envisioned an ethnolinguistic nationalism that did
not exclude low culture or repudiate other
ethnolinguistic cultures.
– Following Napoleon, Herder’s followers hoped for
a unified German nation.
The Growth of the Nation-State, 1815–1871
• Congress of Vienna met in 1815, after defeat of Napoleon,
to restore monarchies.
– Metternich of Austria was determined to stop republicanism.
– Congress had two principles:
• legitimacy of monarchical rule
• balance of power between European states.
• Members agreed to meet as the Concert of Europe at
regular intervals.
• Difficulty of what to do about German-speaking states.
– Confederation of German States created.
– Prussia and Austria competed for dominance in the
Confederation.
• French Bourbon monarchy restored with Louis
XVIII, brother of Louis XVI.
– He and successor Charles X tried to restore
absolutism and aristocracy.
– Provoked a republican reaction that replaced
Charles with Louis-Philippe.
• Paris Revolution in 1848 forced Louis-Philippe
into exile.
• Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte elected ruler.
Charles X
Louis XVIII
Louis-Napoleon
Bonaparte
Louis-Philippe
Revolutions of 1848
• Uprisings swept across German
Confederation, Ireland, and Italian states.
• Constitutional assembly in Germany elected a
government.
– Restricted by Austrian emperor, and only involved
German Federation and Prussia.
– Offered hereditary crown to Prussian king, who
refused to be “elected.”
– Assembly disbanded by Prussian troops and
restores regional monarchs.
Ireland
• Ethnolinguistic nationalists in Ireland debate
the role of Catholicism.
• 1854 potato blight killed about a fifth of the
population from famine.
– Mass emigration to the United States.
– Young Irelanders pushed for home rule but were
stopped by police.
Italy
• Many Italian states were under Austrian
control, others were weak states.
• Unification of Italy by Cavour, under the King
Victor Emanuel II of Piedmont-Sardinia.
• Aided by Garibaldi, a republican but wanted to
unify Italy at all costs.
Italian Unification
Victor Emanuel II
Giuseppe Garibaldi
Giuseppe Verdi
(1813 – 1901)
Prussia . . . Germany
Wilhelm I
Otto von Bismarck
• Second Schleswig War
1864
• Austro-Prussian War
1866
(“Seven Weeks War”)
• Franco-Prussian War
1870-71
Richard Wagner
(1813 – 1883)
Great Britain
• . . . faced two struggles in the nineteenth
century.
– Scotland, Wales, and Ireland wanted home rule,
granted after World War I.
– Parliamentary reforms extended franchise to
middle and lower classes.
• Great Reform Bill of 1832 granted more seats to
industrial north.
• Corn Laws repealed in 1846 and made grain cheaper.
• Second Reform in 1847 opened up voting to workingclass voters.
Queen Victoria
Born 1819
Reigned 1837-1901
Romanticism and Realism:
Philosophical and Artistic Expression to 1850
• Romantics reacted against the materialist thought of the Enlightenment.
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Hegel argued that all thought moved to matter in a dialectic.
Led to ego-centered poetry of Coleridge, Wordsworth, and Shelley.
In America, Romantic poetry was transcendentalist: Emerson, Dickinson.
Romantic composers such as Beethoven and Berlioz were encouraged by
middle class interest in music.
• Romanic painters and writers explored nature and questioned social
hierarchy.
• Realism shifted focus from the self to the prosaic world of the middle
class.
• Comte’s Positivism privileged the age of science.
• Realist writers moved away from sentiment to middle class aesthetic.
Wanderer Above the Sea of Fog
Caspar David Friedrich, 1818
The Gleaners
Jean-François Millet, 1857