Transcript Imperialism - ciealevelresources

Theories of Causes and Motives
Economic explanations: Classical
Economic Theory
 States annex areas because they need a secure source
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of raw materials, export markets for industrial output
and outlet for surplus capital
Capitalist system that works to maximize profits
Wages kept low, purchasing power declines, selling
products and new investments becomes difficult
Outside markets have to be found to avoid
overproduction and underconsumption
Radicals like Lenin claimed this was highest stage of
capitalism, Hobson-liberal-claimed not inevitable, but
to raise purchasing power of the masses
Evaluation
 Overseas investment in africa by major imperialist powers
(france, germany, GB) didn’t go to africa—mainly europe or
south america (france invested heavily in russia)—what was
invested in africa was invested in old african empires (mainly
egypt and SA)
 Of the 5 main imperialist powers in africa, only GB had
significant overseas investment—italy and portugal faced severe
capital shortage during partition
 But economic motives might be present, even though they didn’t
materialize—territorial expansion perceived as necessary to
safeguard future of industrial power, so hoped colonies would be
good investment—Leopold II (belgium must have a colony like
netherlands’ indies!) and de Brazza felt so, but Leopold was
unsupported by traders, industrialists, financiers—belgium
economy leaned on walloonian heavy industry, easily traded
with european neighbours
Defensive imperialism/Closed Door
Theory
 Capitalist states best served by free trade Ricardian system, each
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state produces best-suited product, international specialization
and optimal advantages
But some states try to get advantage at cost of others by raising
trade barriers
Other states forced to pursue imperialism to prevent economic
losses
Economic recession of 1870s also felt in West Africa (senegal to
laos)—led to increasing french and brit protection of trading
interests there
In german trading circles, seemed whole west african coast being
closed off by french and brits, threatened trading interests
Finding the door to africa closed pushed bismarck to
imperialism
Evaluation
 In reality, no question of german exclusion, but pro
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colonialism propagandists used this as argument
Anglo-french convention applied only to part of west
coast—senegal to sierra leone, and never ratified
Germany’s interest in africa was open door, guarantees
of free trade and navigation
Bismarck’s decision to reject Anglo-Portuguese trade
agreement and to recognize congo free state was partly
related to secure free trade for germany in congo area
But policy of formal imperialism was unnecessary for
this
World System approach
 With the start of economic recession, british
superiority and world economic hegemony declined
 New industrializing powers (USA, Germany)
threatening economic hegemony—these felt need for
large markets and raw materials to do this
 Period of protectionism and formal imperialism as
each rival attempts to preserve its own portion of
periphery
Evaluation
 During partition of Africa, economic rivalries between
great powers were increasing
 Protectionist measures in germany and france
 French rivalry and expansion of trade threatened
coastal powers britain relied on for security of
merchants
 But britain’s economic commitments and interests
called for expansion regardless of international
strategic rivalry—niger delta taken even before french
and german rivals arrived
Political theories—Balance of
Power
 Imperialism a safety valve for european powers’ rivalry
 After franco-prussian war, germany strongest
continental power, Bismarck tried to maintain this
 Concluded range of treaties and agreements to
stabilize european balance of power
 To prevent bond between france and russia, to isolate
france
 By aggressive colonial policy, britain (main obstacle to
german hegemony) to be forced to political agreement
Evaluation
 Bismarck did support anglo-french egyptian venture and
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after france failed, backed french diplomatic efforts to have
britain withdraw
Demarches in west and southwest africa were moves to
encroach on british african preserves
But in most areas of conflict UK appeared to be appeasing
france, bismarck feared anglo-french entente against
german colonialism
National considerations in german elections also played a
role
Aggressive colonial policy lasted only 1 year under bismarck
Social imperialism
 Territorial expansion as political means to face internal
social unrest—increasing class conflicts in periods of rapid
industrialization
 Bismarck’s germany faced unrest because of unsteady
growth of german economic development 1873-96—
periods of rapid industrialization interceded by various
industrial crises while recession in agricultural sphere in
1876
 Imperialism a way of diversion from social troubles and
preservation of economy in time of recession
 Maintenance of traditional power structure (domestic)
with bismarck on top
Evaluation
 If staying in powerwinning elections, then this policy may
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have been factor, effective as well
Bismarck’s anti socialist laws
Bismarck protected iron and steel, and agriculture sector in 1879
by general tariff
Political support of hamburg, Bremen and other north German
cities
Colonial lobbies politically useful because they appealed to same
middle class audience providing support for political rivals
But effort to achieve social imperialism in stalemated political
society only led to militarism, destruction of representative gov
and WW1—failed to integrate forces of order (agrarian junkers
and industrial middle class) against socialism and democracy
Mythical theory—irresponsible
leaders, Warrior class interests
 French expansion in west africa and towards upper nile based on
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illusions of politicians
Reputed richness of interior may explain french striving for
larger empire
expansion towards upper nile to pressure britain into
international conference on egypt—illusion of support of other
powers (Germany, Russia) and diplomatic reaction of GB
Great autonomous power of colonial department, frequent
alternations of politicians, personal influence of decision
makers, prevailing anti-british foreign policy, influence of public
opinion and pressure groups and bad and incomplete
information from anglophobe expansionist army
officerspersistance of colonial/imperial myth
Greatest misperception of european powers—leopold’s
adventure would fail
Prestige Imperialism
 Territorial expansion fed by feelings of national
consciousness and pride—goal unto itself
 Italian expansion prompted by german expansion—italy
didn’t react to French takeover in tunisia despite 50,000
italians there, but after Bismarck started annexation,
politicians convinced Italy couldn’t stay behind
 Portuguese gov justified imperial policy by appealing to
heroic colonial past—a matter of prestige
 Recognition of her claims in Congo considered question of
honor, (brit) interference in colonial affairs was vehemently
rejected
Strategic Interests (robinson and
gallagher)
 Consider british takeover of egypt 1882 start of
imperialism in africa—laid foundation of anglo-french
rivalry in africa
 Afrikaner nationalism in SA threatened status quo—
british trade and mining interests, route to india in
case of problems with the suez
 Nearly all interventions consequences of threat to
british influence and security in the world
Evaluation
 Theory suggests french expansion in africa search for
compensation for egyptian losss
 Anglo-french rivalry did last through majority of
period, only resolved after fashoda crisis
 French convention with Leopold 1884 regarding right
to pre-empt his territory if adventure failed partly
motivated by fear that if leopold were forced to dispose
his possessions, they would go to britain
 But france in congo was also a search for old grandeur,
not entirely due to anglo-french rivalry and
compensation for egypt
Partition process in Africa
 1875-79 Penetration of central africa by Leopold II from
east (with Stanley’s help) and de Brazza from west, for
exploration and on personal terms
 1879-82 Leopold and de Brazza still on personal title,
penetration directed towards exclusive rights
 1883-84 brazza acts officially in french name, leopold and
france try to obtain sovereign rights, Portugal and Brits
step in, conflicting territorial claims between france and
portugal on one hand and portugal on other
 1884-5 partition becomes european diplomacy issue,
guided by Bismarck, conflicts solved by diplomacy
The Start
 Until 1875 european interests along west african coasts
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limited, interests in interior of africa even more so
West African trade dominated by Brits
Mid-1870s, central africa became interest of european
geographic associations, african ‘mysteries’ of interior
Great african rivers not just geographic interest but
also economic and strategic as potential function as
main lines of communication
Leopold II of Belgium attracted by economic promises
of congo, but not supported at home, so acted alone
Association internationale du
Congo
 Under a philanthropic cover of opening up central africa to
western trade and civilization and removing slavery, Belgian
expeditions dove into Africa
 From 1877 onwards, directed towards Congo—leopold heard of
Stanley’s journey through Central Africa, enormous trading
potential in congo basin and river as grand highway of commerce
 Stanley recruited by leopold to establish posts along river and
obtain sovereign rights from local african rulers to open up
congo area
 Competitor: de Brazza, french naval officer, wanted to set up
french trade imperium, rejected by french government but
funded by minister for the navy (under whom colonies fell),
Montaignac, friend of Brazza family
Leopold-France
 Brazza concluded treaty with King Makoko for protectorate on area
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bordering north right bank of congo
In 1882, french policy had changed to protectionist-colonialist, call for
colonies especially by naval officers and geographers, Brazza-Makoko
treaties ratified
Real scramble up for the upper congo and kwilu-niari basin between
brazza and stanley—easier communication line from upper congo to
atlantic for france, leopold couldn’t be sure of lower congo because of
portuguese claims
Stanley won—almost whole kwilu-niari basin with coastline, while
france got just few posts and in area and on congo
Leopold got recognition of AIC from USA, concession from france:
promised to respect AIC territories in return for pre-emption of
possessions if leopold forced to dispose of them
Became european problem as french dominance in africa far more
threatening than Leopold’s adventurism
Portugal-Britain-France
 Renewed negotiations between portugal and britain on portugal’s territorial
claims in the region—britain had never recognized these because of slave trade
and portuguese protectionist colonial policy and britain’s growing trade interests
there
 With makoko treaty, threat of french trade monopoly in congo area—great
threat for existing and future trade, because of french return to formal
imperialism, britain informal imperialism based on free trade and paramountcy
worthless
 Best alternative to place portugal at mouth of congo, in return for portuguese
trade and navigation concessions in all of africa
 1884 treaty recognized portugal in lower congo, north and south banks—
leopold’s outlet to sea by lower congo blocked
 Storm of protest—portugal trading houses thought treaty a humiliation as brit
recognition had been very conditional, british humanitarian organizations and
chamber of commerce protested because of portuguese protectionism and
inefficiency and corruption of authorities in territorial possessions
 French protests, and also German refusal to ratify treaty—claimed it was threat
to free trade rights of all nations
Germany—Bismarck Aussenpolitik
 German reaction part of emerging anti-british colonial policy
 Recession hit both industry and agriculture, demands for colonies
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and protection
Colonial movement came into existence 1882, gov and ruling
political parties couldn’t ignore colonialism
New german policy’s first sign here (one year later: cameroon
coastlines, togo, german east africa (tanganyika), south-west africa
(namibia)
By making britain a reichsfeind, hoped to touch nationalist
sentiments and win elections in 1884
Had to appease france to cultivate anglo-french rivalry and prevent
franco-russian alliance—rapprochement
Supported french at london conference 1884 on egypt, agreed to
force settlement on west africa and congo basin, organized berlin
conference
Berlin Conference 1884-5
 At french request, territorial matters not included on agenda—french
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preferred bilateral discussion with weak portugal and even weaker
belgian AIC
Territorial questions discussed behind the scenes, emphasis on free
trade and navigation in conference
Britain uneager to join conference—Ferry and Bismarck included niger
river on agenda, GB considered lower niger ‘british’ like ‘french’ senegal
But not joining meant complete isolation; bismarck recognized AIC
1884 just before start of conference (AIC at least promised free trade in
meantime, better than French and portuguese protectionists)
Ferry also happy with bismarck’s move—AIC free trade meant no
revenues for AIC, only making french purchase more likely
Britain had no choice but to recognize AIC territory as well—congo
Free state established
Conclusions
 British role—status quo of free trade to be preserved,
protector and ally of weak portugal (brits willing to discuss
portuguese territorial claims even before france-leopold
congo affair), this offered opportunity to demand better
trading conditions in portuguese colonies—repeated and
lengthy negotiations 1876-82 showed free trade first,
portugal second
 De Brazza and leopold may represent elite characterized by
militarism and nationalist class with imperialism as goal
unto itself, but neither france nor belgium was such an elite
at this time, ventures never supported in belgium and only
lately supported in france
Conclusions
 Developments in technology--transport and communications
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made imperialism possible
Increasing economic and political rivalry in europe made
imperialism probable
Transition from liberalism to ideology based on aggressive
nationalism and racism (social darwinism)
Although economic stagnation started 1873, effects intensified in
1882, protectionism grew in france, germany, portugal
1881 Dreikaiserbund (germany, russia, austri), 1882 Triple
alliance created (Germany-Austria-Italy)—france isolated as
britain in splendid isolation
Imperialists like Ferry came to power in France
Britain took over Egypt in 1882, as a matter of strategic interest—
french prestige hurt, compensation not received