Transcript Chapter 22
Chapter 22 The Age of Nationalism & Realism 1850-1871 The France of Napoleon III dismissed after his election as ineffectual, only successful because of his name – astute politician, understood popular forces of his day – Bided time, gained the support of the people for 3 years – Nat. Assembly rejected his wish to revise the constitution allowing reelection used military to seize control Dec.1, 1851 – – – – restored universal male suffrage asked people to restructure the govt & make him pres. for 10 yrs 92% yes vote of 8,150,000 Nov 21, 1852 – asked to re-establish an empire, 97% voted “yes” kept the appearance of a representative govt. – Reps elected to the Legislative Corps to 6 year terms Legislative Corps had no authority over legislation or budget during his reign, reconstructed Paris to be more “modern” – served a military purpose – wider boulevards made it harder to create barricades & easier for military to sweep in & put down revolts Foreign Policy Crimean War Ottoman Empire had been in decline since 1699, but it had lost territory on several instances since 1783 – the Crimea in 1783; Bessarabia to Russia, 1812 – Serbia to independence, 1817 – Greece to independence, 1830 The Russians proximity to Ottoman Empire & religious ties to Greek Orthodox allowed them to increase influence in that region Other European powers objected to Russian ambitions & they also had their own agendas – Austria wanted more land in Balkans, France & Britain interested in commercial opportunities & naval bases in Med. & Black Seas the war was poorly planned & poorly executed on both sides Britain & France laid siege to the Crimean peninsula March 1854 Treaty of Paris signed March 1856, Russia lost Bessarabia & Black Sea destroyed the Concert of Europe, 250,000 died (60% came from disease) National Unification: Italy & Germany Italy revolutions failed 1848-49 unification pushes still came, led by King Victor Emanuel II of Piedmont & his PM Camillo di Cavour Cavour’s economic ventures let to a flood of income used to build a strong military in Piedmont Made small but important gains in alliance w/ France Giuseppe Garibaldi led revolutionaries in south Italy, joined Piedmont’s forces & in 1861, Kingdom of Italy formed – Under the rule of throne of Piedmont 1870 – Franco-Prussian war caused French withdrawal from Rome Rome annexed & name capital of the new Italian state The Unification of Germany the Frankfurt Assembly failed to achieve German unification in 1848-49 Austria had long dominated the Germanic Confederation, but Prussia was growing much stronger 1834 – Prussia formed the Zollverein, a German customs union – Eliminated tolls on rivers and roads among the river states – by 1853, all German states but Austria joined the customs union 1848 – Prussia had framed a constitution w/ constitutional monarch & bicameral legislature & universal male suffrage – – – – – voting was divided into 3 classes based on paid taxes more taxes paid, more seats in legislature 1859 – this led to the legislature becoming controlled by middle class king’s exec. power strong, royal ministers answered directly to king parliament had control of legislative & taxation powers it could build on Frederick William IV died in 1861 & his brother William I took throne William believed the army must be strong to remain a European power – proposed to double the size of the army & push for compulsory military service – Parliament rejected the proposal, William named Otto von Bismarck PM Bismarck was even considered by William I to be “too conservative” – would prove interesting w/ liberal-controlled Parliament – dominated German & European politics for nearly 30 years often assumed that Bismarck completely guided all events on the course to German unification – he was a consummate politician & opportunist – not a gambler, only went to war if odds heavy in his favor & diplomatic solutions were exhausted – Never the less, known as a warmonger by many 1862 – resubmitted the army appropriations bill to Parliament – when rejected, he collected the taxes anyway & reorganized the army – 1862-66: largely ignored parliament, running the Prussia by himself – eventually, he would ask Parliament to retroactively adopt the bill in 1866 unwilling to revolt, the legislature did nothing opposition to his domestic policy led Bismarck to pursue active foreign policy – This led to the first of his “Three Wars” in 1864 Bismarck’s Three Wars “Show me an objective worthy of war and I will go along with you.” Bismarck’s plan was to unify all German states except Austria & Switzerland under Prussian domination Bismarck shared William’s views on army reconstruction & he also embraced the policy of realpolitik – realpolitik – right of the nation-state to pursue its advantage by any means, including war & by breaking treaties – had a strong dislike of anyone who opposed his views The Danish War (1864) before war was declared, Bismarck made sure he would only be fighting one power & his opponent was diplomatically isolated Denmark moved to bring Schleswig & Holstein under their control – Both territories had large German populations – Prussia quickly convinced Austria to side w/ them & divide administrative duties over the two duchies Denmark defeated very quickly This war accomplished 2 things: – Europe was now aware of the Prussian military – Prussia now had a reason to go to war with Austria The Austro-Prussian War (1866) quickly worked to isolate Austria diplomatically – got Russia’s agreement to remain neutral very easily – France had to be persuaded w/ vague promise of territory in Rhineland – promised Venetia to Italy if Austria was defeated Prussia defeated Austria in seven weeks – Bismarck did not want to create more hostility by imposing a harsh peace settlement – In addition to gaining total control of Schleswig & Holstein, Prussia annexed Hanover & Hesse-Cassel for supporting Austria – Austria only lost Venetia, but was excluded from “German” affairs The German states north of the Main River became part of the North German Confederation – Southern states remained independent, but signed military agreements w/ Prussia In the NGC, each state kept its local govt, but the Prussian king was head of the confederation & the chancellor answered directly to king – The army & foreign policy remained in the hands of the king & chancellor The Franco-Prussian War (1870-71) France could not abide a strong German state, looked for a diplomatic victory to offset domestic problems The Bourbon ruler (Isabella II) was removed in revolt & William I’s cousin asked to take throne – France objected & demanded public apology from William I – Bismarck intercepted William’s letter, changed it, making it more insulting July 15, 1870 – Napoleon III declared war on Prussia Sept. 2, 1870 – Napoleon III & an entire French army were captured – Second empire collapsed in France, fighting continued for 4 months Jan. 18, 1871 – southern states join NGC, William I named kaiser of second German empire (HRE was 1st) Jan. 28, 1871 – France forced to pay 5 bill. Francs ($1 bill.) & gave up provinces of Alsace & Lorraine This left France hungry for revenge – we all know frightening & dangerous a mad Frenchman is….eeek! German unification under Prussia was a victory for conservative values over liberal beliefs Prussia was now the strongest power on the European continent Austria: Toward a Dual Monarchy 1851 – revolutionary constitutions abolished – Hungary subjected to rule of military officers – Economic troubles & war soon brought change Emperor Francis Joseph tried to establish an imperial parliament – suppose to provide representation for nationalities throughout empire – Complicated formula for election process assured German speaking majority Ausgleich (Compromise) of 1867 Created dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary – Each part had a constitution, bicameral legislature, political machinery, & capital (Austria – Vienna, Buda & Pest united in Hungary) The 2 states held together by a single monarch, common army, foreign policy & system of finances did NOT satisfy the other nationalities that made up the multinational empire – Simply allowed the German speaking Austrians & Hungarian Magyars to dominate the other ethnic groups – Nationalities persisted as a problem in this region until the end of WWI. Imperial Russia Russia’s defeat in Crimean War show that there were deficiencies in the façade of absolute power Serfdom biggest problem – serf-based labor focused on antiquated forms of production – uneducated & unable to deal w/ increasingly complex machines & weapons of war Tsar Alexander II abolished serfdom March 3, 1861 (almost 2 years before Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation) – limited benefits for former serfs, did receive land from the state – not completely freed, peasants now had to repay state for land – land basically belonged to the commune no the individuals 1864 – instituted zemstvos – local governments, dominated by nobles Reform movements like populism developed – – – – sought create a new society through revolutionary acts of the peasants 1878 - Vera Zasulich shot & wounded govt official, acquitted by jury 1881 – Alexander II assassinated by group called “People’s Will” Alexander III took the throne, turned against reform & resorted to repression Great Britain: The Victorian Age Britain wasn’t troubled by revolutions of 1848 because they had not resisted reform Reform Act of 1832 opened the door for middle class representation In 1860s, liberal parliament displayed ability to make social & political reform to remain stable & prosperous One reason for stability was economic growth – Real wages for laborers increased 25% 1850-1870 – Queen Victoria’s reign (1837-1901) a symbol of the British nat’l pride, since known as the Victorian Age After PM Lord Palmerston died 1865, the Whigs (liberals) proposed additional reform legislation, actually the Tories (conservatives) that carried it through – led by Benjamin Disraeli, Tories pushed the Reform Act of 1867 through Parliament – lowered monetary requirements for voting & enfranchised many urban males – believed it would help Tories, led to huge Whig gains in elections of 1868 William Gladstone (Whig) introduced the secret ballot & tried to eliminate abuses & enable people of talent to compete fairly Education Act of 1870 – attempted to make elementary schools available for all children Marx and Marxism B. 1818, D. 1883 probably most prominent voice of socialism, but not the only voice co-author of the Communist Manifesto w/ Friedrich Engels in 1848 – went largely unnoticed in 1848, but became one of the most important political pieces in modern European history – history was a continuous series of classstruggles – Govt. had become a tool of the bourgeoisie (middle class) & oppressed working class – the Proletariat (workers) would overthrow their “masters” & establish a classless society – classless society would lead to progress in science, technology, & greater wealth for all He failed to organize a workers movement idea revived in 1889, the fate of socialism was in the hands of national socialist parties Science in the Age of Realism Louis Pasteur formulated the germ theory of disease 1860’s Dmitri Mendeleyev developed a table classifying the elements based on atomic weight Michael Faraday – discovered electromagnetic induction, built a primitive generator Advances of science undermined the faith of many, led to increased secularization & growth of materialism – the belief that everything was simply the result of physical forces – led to the belief of organic evolution Charles Darwin (1809-1882) 1859 – presented his idea of evolution based on natural selection in On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection – all plants & animals evolved over time from simpler life forms – “only the strong survive” – struggle to survive allows for adaptations to help survival chances 1871- applied his theories of natural selection to humans in The Descent of Man – argued that man was not the exception to the rule governing other species – highly controversial at first, eventually accepted by scientists & intellectuals Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) not a doctor, a chemist that approached medical problems in scientific fashion 1857 – studied the role of microorganisms in fermentation, laid the foundations for bacteriology 1863 – developed process of heating a product to destroy bacteria that led to spoilage – pasteurization 1885 – developed a preventive vaccination for rabies, led to vaccinations for other health issues of the day New Surgical Practices post-operative infection was major problem in hospitals Joseph Lister theorized that bacteria might enter a would causing infection – use of carbolic acid as a disinfectant reduced infections & related deaths in surgery wards Alcohol & opiates had been used to lessen pain of patients, but procedures were still hurried – Sulfuric ether first used in 1846, by 1847 chloroform rivaled ether as an anesthetic Chapter 23 The Mass Society in an “Age of Progress” 1871-1894 Evolutionary Socialism In the late 19th cent., a challenge to pure Marxist belief arose – Eduard Bernstein, German socialist influenced by moderate British socialism Bernstein proposed several anti-Marxist thoughts in Evolutionary Socialism (1899) – – – – – that capitalism was not collapsing as Marx said it inevitably would middle class was not shrinking, it was growing proletariat was not suffering more, qual. of life actually improving disregarded Marx’s ideas of class struggle & revolution promoted workers banding together in political parties to push for change Nationalism also posed a problem for socialism – Marx & Engels said “workers have no country” – socialist parties varied for country to country & concerns were nationalistic The Anarchist Alternative – lack of revolutionary fervor drove some Marxists to into anarchism – anarchy – absence of government, state of chaos, lack of social order – Russian Michael Bakunin believed small well trained groups could create enough terror the state & all its institutions would disintegrate – Anarchists around the world assassinated: Russian tsar (1881), Pres. of France (1894), Italian king (1900), & Pres. William McKinley (1901) Population Growth 1850 to 1910 – pop of Europe grew from 270 million to 460 million 1850-80 cause was increasing birthrate 1880-1910 cause: decreased death rate Emigration many people moved within Europe to industrial regions booming economy in N.America & cheap shipping fares led many from south & eastern Europe to N.A. between 1906-10, 1.3 million Europeans left for North America another factor for eastern European migration was oppression in Austria & Hungary of smaller minority groups Jews severely persecuted across Europe – 40% of Russian emigrants to US 1900-13 – 12% of all US immigrants 1900-05 Education & Leisure in Mass Society being “educated” in the late 19th cent, meant attending secondary school or possibly even a university – both primarily for the elite: nobility, govt. officials’ families, wealthiest middle class – after 1850, most middle class families sought entry into elite scientific or technical schools In early 19th cent, most countries showed little interest in primary education – only Germany had a state-run system, France implemented a state-run school system in 1833 for both boys & girls – none of the schools required attendance – rural areas - children expected to work in fields – industrial areas - employers & parents both eager to continue child-labor Mass Leisure industrial work patterns allowed more people to have “free time” music & dance halls popular, different halls for upper & lower classes tourism also became popular w/ upper & middle classes late 19th cent, team sports became popular – Soccer & rugby in England in 1860s & 70s, baseball in the U.S. first organized professionally in 1863, by 1900 dominated by Nat’l & American leagues The National State Reform in Britain Reform Act of 1867 – right to vote further extended Reform Act of 1884 – all men who paid regular rents or taxes (added roughly 2 million voters) – Women still excluded William Gladstone tried to stem Irish discontent by enacting limited land reform – – – – – 1879 the Irish Land League called on Parliament to at least make land reform Charles Parnell called for “home rule” “home rule” meant separate parliament but not complete independence Irish peasants responded to British inaction w/ terrorist acts British govt. responded w/ force, Gladstone tried to pass bills for home rule but they all got voted down in Parliament The Third Republic in France France’s defeat by Prussia in 1870 led to the fall of Napoleon III’s empire Bismarck forced the French to select a govt. by male suffrage A new republic was established, in the 1880s people discontent w/ the republic gathered behind General Georges Boulanger Boulanger gathered power, but when people expected a coup d’etat he fled the country a discredited man & strengthened republic support Spain drafted a new constitution in 1875 under King Alfonso XII established parliamentary govt, dominated by 2 political groups – Conservatives & Liberals – both parties came form the same small group of wealthy landowners allied w/ industrialists – voting was limited to landed classes, so majority was left without voice – parties alternated power often, but both followed same conservative policies Spain’s defeat in Span.-Amer. War (1898) increased discontent in lower classes – young radicals pushed for increased suffrage – Liberals & Conservatives tried to increase voting rights to win support, helped very little – more industrialization led workers to be attracted to socialism & anarchism Revolts break out in Barcelona in July 1909, brutally suppressed by military (showed reform would not be easily accomplished) Italy united kingdom, but not united as people Loyalties placed on family, town, or region before nation Sectionalized – south: agricultural, poor; north: industrial, treated southerners with contempt Germany Despite unification, many divisions still existed – represented in bicameral legislature upper house – Bundesrat – Represented the 25 states – States kept their king & standing army during peace time lower house – Reichstag – Elected based on universal male suffrage – did not have ministerial responsibility ministers of govt. not responsible to parliament, responsible to Emperor – Emperor controlled armed forces, foreign policy & internal administration – Despite parliament elected by universal male suffrage, democracy failed to develop in Germany before WWI Bismarck & army 2 major reasons why democracy didn’t develop – Army saw its self as defender of the monarchy – Bypassed the Reichstag by answering to a general staff responsible to the emperor – Bismarck centralized Germany to an extent during the Kulturkampf, joining w/ liberals by attacking Catholics in Protestant Germany – Abandoned liberals in 1878, to gain Catholic support against threat of socialism – 1890: William II becomes emperor, has his own ideas & immediately has conflicts w/ Bismarck. Bismarck resigns after 29 of running Prussia/Germany Austria-Hungary Austrian constitution of 1867 gave parliament ministerial responsibility Francis Joseph ignored this & appointed his own ministers at will ethnic Germans (1/3 of pop.) ruled Austria, but increasingly threatened by smaller ethnic groups – Would continue to be a problem leading up to WWI Attempt to solve the ethnic problems in Hungary was to “Magyarize” everyone – Magyar lang. imposed on all schools & was only lang. used by govt & military officials Russia after assassination of Alexander II, Alexander III convinced reform had been a mistake Instituted “exceptional measures” – powers of secret police expanded – revolutionary groups, advocates of constitutional monarchy & social reformers persecuted – if districts were suspected of treason, placed under martial law pursued “Russification” – all nationalities must speak Russian – only 40% of empire were actually Russian – solidified opposition against the tsar – his son, Nicholas II (1894-1917) weak & not able to resist changes Chapter 24 Age of Modernity, Anxiety, and Imperialism 1894-1914 Developments in the Sciences 1898 - French scientists Marie & Pierre Curie discover that radium emitted radiation, apparently from within the atom itself – led to belief that atoms were not simply hard material bodies 1900 - Max Planck developed the “quantum theory” – rejected the theory that a heated body radiated energy in a steady stream, instead releasing energy in irregular packets called “quanta” 1905 – Albert Einstein published “The Electro Dynamics of Moving Bodies” – contained his theory of relativity – time & space not absolute; relative to observer – if all material things disappear from the universe, time & space disappear as well Concluded that matter was nothing but another form of energy – Led to the “Atomic Age” – Many unable to comprehend his theories until a total eclipse of the sun in 1919 – the presence of mass and energy "curves" spacetime, and this curvature affects the path of free particles (and even the path of light). Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) published The Interpretation of Dreams, 1900 father of psychoanalysis behavior strongly determined by unconscious mind reason some guiding forces in a person’s life are unconscious is repression painted a picture of the inner workings of the human mind as a battle between ego, id, & superego – Id – held all the lustful, crude impulses & appetites – Ego – reason, coordinator of daily life – Superego – inhibitions & morals society imposes on people ego & superego restrain the id & keep it out of consciousness according to Freud, sexual repressions were the most important – developed theories of the Oedipus & Electra complexes repression began in childhood – Psychoanalysis works by making the conscious mind aware of the unconscious & its repressed contents – By coming to terms w/ these issues, the problems can be resolved The New Imperialism Causes competitive nation-states after 1870; colonies would provide ports and coaling stations for European powers’ navies – G.B. often expanded to keep France, Germany or Russia from setting up colonies that might threaten British interests Source of international prestige; “We have more colonies than you!” – failure to enter the imperialistic race was a sign of weakness Media made the scramble to colonize made military service seem like heroic a service for one’s country Some saw colonization of Africa as a humanitarian crusade – Rudyard Kipling’s “White Man’s Burden” p.704 – Some saw colonization as destructive & the humanitarian outlook of Kipling’s poem hypocritical (see Morel’s “Black Man’s Burden” p.705) Impact of Colonization on Africa by 1914 Africa had been carved up by European powers – Only Liberia & Ethiopia remained free “Maji-Maji” Rebellion in Sudan representative of what would happen if colonies tried to revolt Imperialism in Asia Great Britain made Australia & New Zealand dominions in 1901 & 1907 1842 - obtained control of Hong Kong 1876 – Queen Victoria named Empress of India & direct rule of India started after putting down a sepoy revolt (Indian soldiers in employ of the British East India Company) Russia 1637 - had reached the Pacific coast after laying claim to Alaska in the 18th cent., sold it to the U.S. in 1867 Began chipping away at the Ottoman Empire as early as 1830 1905 - Lost control of Korea after losing the Russo-Japanese war 1907 – agreed w/ G.B. to make Afghanistan a buffer state between Turkestan & India American Imperialism 1853-1854: Japan avoided Western intrusion until U.S. Commodore Matthew Perry forced Japan to give the U.S. diplomatic and trading privileges The Pacific islands were a source of great competition & saw U.S. entry into the colonization race – The Samoan Islands were the first U.S. colony – Hawaii was next to be colonized – Pearl Harbor became a naval base in 1887 – Hawaii annexed 1898 – After defeating Spain in the Spanish-American War, U.S. acquired Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippine Islands 1899 – John Hay (Sec of State) helped develop an “open door” policy between the European powers and their spheres of influence in Asia Social Darwinism & Racism In the late 19th cent. Many scientific theories wrongly applied to achieve other ends (usually to achieve notoriety) application of Darwin’s theories of organic evolution to the social order became known as “Social Darwinism” Herbert Spencer – argued that societies were organisms that evolved through their struggle w/ environment – The “fit” survived, the weak went into decline Racism nationalist groups began applying Darwinist thought to race nations were locked in a “struggle for existence” – International struggle meant war, in many cases radical nationalists welcomed the thought extreme nationalism & racism was most evident in Germany Since early 19th cent, there was an underlying idea in Germany that the German people were the only true descendants of the “Aryans” – Under German leadership, the Aryan people would defend Western civilization from Jews, Negroes, & Orientals among others – increasingly, the Jewish people would be singled out as the racial enemy of German volkish nationalism Jews in the European Nation-State As a result of the Enlightenment & F.R., Jewish people were granted equality across Europe – Emancipated & became full citizens of France by 1791 – After revolutions of 1848, emancipation became a fact of life across western & central Europe now allowed to leave the ghettoes & become assimilated into society 1880 – Jews made up 10% of population of Vienna – 39% of medical students – 23% of law students – others also became successful bankers, scientists, scholars, journalists, & performers Anti-Semitism in Austrian Empire & Germany Vienna may have been integrating, but Austria was also the home to a German nationalism that blamed Jews for corrupting German culture – this is where Hitler claims to have discovered his world view (1907-1913) German right-wing anti-Semites won votes of lower-middle-class groups that feared the changing economic forces of the time Persecution of Jews in Eastern Europe Worst treatment of the Jews came in the last 2 decades of 19th & 1st decade of 20th cent. in Eastern Europe – where 72% of the world’s Jewish population lived Russian Jews admitted to secondary schools & universities on a quota system pogroms (organized massacres) widespread 23,000 Jews left Russia each year 1881-1899 Most went to U.S. & Canada, a small number went to Palestine – Palestine became the focus for a Jewish nationalist movement called Zionism As the nationalist movement swept through Italy & Greece in the 1840s, the idea of a Jewish state became the focus of some Theodor Herzl (1860-1904) key figure in the Zionist movement – wrote The Jewish State 1896 – Financial support for Jewish settlements in Palestine came from wealthy Jewish banking families – Only problem was that Palestine was in the Ottoman Empire & authorities opposed Jewish immigration International Rivalry & the Coming of War Before 1914, Europe had experienced 50 yrs of peace – There were wars, but not involving the great powers 1873 – fearing French desire for revenge for Franco-Prussian war, led Bismarck to forge alliances w/ Austria-Hungary & Russia – Three Emperor’s league failed mainly due to rivalry between Russia & Austria in the Balkans Russian defeat of Ottoman Empire in 1876 – settled by Treaty of San Stefano 1878 – Bulgaria became an independent satellite of Russia – caused European powers to call Congress of Berlin 1878 Congress dominated by Bismarck, effectively demolished the treaty – size of Bulgaria greatly reduced & rest returned to Ottoman control – Serbia, Montenegro, & Romania recognized as independent – Bosnia & Herzegovina placed under Austrian “protection” Angered by German actions at the Congress of Berlin, Russia terminated the Three Emperor’s League Bismarck then made an alliance w/ Austria-Hungary (1879) & Italy (1882) Triple Alliance of 1882 – Germany, Austria-Hungary, & Italy – sought to support the existing political order – provide a defensive alliance against France or “two or more great powers not in the alliance” Bismarck sought to stay on friendly terms w/ Russia, hoping to prevent a French-Russian alliance that would threaten Germany w/ 2 front war Bismarck was dismissed in 1890 & William II would set a new course for German foreign policy 1907 – Great Britain, France, & Russia formed the Triple Entente to counter the Triple Alliance 1908 – Austria annexes Bosnia & Herzegovina, Serbia prepares for war w/ Russian support – Germany stepped in forced Russia to accept the annexation 1912 & 13 – Balkan Wars – Serbia sought to gain Albania so as to have a sea port, Austria opposed any and all actions of the Serbians to unite the Slavs of the Balkans – Russia saw that they could not afford to back down from Germany again Sides were chosen & the line had been drawn, it was just a matter of who would cross that line first The “Age of Progress” was about to come to a bloody end “Recommended” Reading If you haven’t already… Ch 23 Pp 660 – 666: Emergence of Mass Society Ch 24 pp 687-691: Modernism pp 697 – 701: state of European powers at this time pp 708 – 710: Reaction to Imperialism