Transcript crimean_war_1854-1856 - Annapolis High School

Crimean War, 1854-1856
• A truly bizarre war
• Russia versus the Ottoman Empire, Britain,
and France
• British policy: Lord Palmerston
– Prevent Russian expansion in the Near East
– Use the Ottoman Empire to do it
• Stratford Canning, British ambassador in
Constantinople
Map Europe
Long Term Causes
• 1690: Ottoman Sultan gave Roman Catholic
Church authority over churches of Nazareth,
Bethlehem and Jerusalem
• 1740: Franco-Turkish treaty solidified RCC’s
authority, but not many Catholics to protect.
• By 1840s Nicholas and Russian Orthodox Church
basically controlled and assumed authority
• Orthodox and Catholic priests actually fought
over control of these churches.
• 1844: Nicholas visited Britain, talked with Lord
Aberdeen about the Ottoman Empire.
Long Term Causes (continued)
•
•
•
•
1849: Louis Napoleon elected President of France
1851: Louis made himself Napoleon III
1852: France seized control of the Holy Places
January 1853: Nicholas to British Ambassador
Seymour: “We have a sick man on our hands, a
man gravely ill, it will be a great misfortune if one
of these days he slips through our hands,
especially before the necessary arrangements are
made.” (NB: Seymour did not disagree.)
• 1853: Nicholas sent Menshikov to negotiate in
Istanbul.
Introduction
• The Concert of Europe had been undermined by
the Revolutions of 1848. No longer any
agreement among the great powers to resolve
issues collectively.
• Crimean Peninsula becomes the center of
international focus
– barely connected to the Ukraine.
– Location of Russian naval base at Sevastopol.
– Gave Russia a commanding presence in the Black
Sea
Short Term Causes
• The Ottoman Empire was viewed by
most European powers as a
receding power. Called “the Sick
Man of Europe”.
• Napoleon III, eager to live up to the
family name, decided to pick on the
Turks. He demanded the Ottoman
sultan agree to protect Christian
minorities within the empire.
Short Term Causes
Tsar Nicholas I demanded the
right to protect Christian
shrines in Jerusalem (part of
the Ottoman Empire).
Nicholas felt that Turks had
insulted the Orthodox religion
by granting French some
concessions regarding
shrines in the Holy Land.
Short Term Causes
• What Russia really meant:
• Nicholas perceived the
Ottoman Empire to be in its
twilight and saw an
opportunity to extend
Russian control into the
Mediterranean – sought to
annex the entire Ottoman
Empire. The Russians
believed they had
international support.
Short Term Causes
• France and Britain feared
the growth of Russian
power and encouraged the
sultan to reject the Russian
ultimatum and promised
support in case of war.
• Britain was concerned
about maintaining open
trade routes with India and
the East.
Lord Palmerston (1784-1865) and Stratford
Canning (1786-1880)
French Policy
• 1690 Ottomans granted the French Catholic
Church the right to have jurisdiction over
some holy places
• By the 19th century the vast majority of
pilgrims were Russian Orthodox
• Russians got more and more concessions for
Orthodox clergy
Steps toward war
• Louis Napoleon (elected president of France
1848, then Emperor Napoleon III in 1852)
• Tsar Nicholas I
• 1853 Russian demanded more concessions at
the holy places
• Canning advised the Turks to reject them
• July 1853 Russians occupied Romania
Napoleon III (ruled as emperor 1852-1870)
and Nicholas I (1825-1855)
Steps toward war
• 1853 Conference in Vienna to work out a solution
• October 3, 1853 Turkish ultimatum to Russia
• November 30, 1853 Battle (?) of Sinope in the Black
Sea
• Napoleon III called on the British to “sweep the
Russian flag from the Black Sea”
• March 1854 Britain and France declared war on
Russia
Battle of Sinope
Battle of Sinope
(3000 Ottoman soldiers killed)
Crimean War
 March 28, 1854: Britain
and France declared
war on Russia
 Crimean Peninsula
 Sevastopol
Map of Crimean War, 1853-1856
Develop an essay question regarding the causes of the Crimean War.
Crimean War
 War Correspondents
 Nicholas I: No spies, all
we need is the Times
of London!
Roger Fenton
Battle of Balaklava (October 1854)
Charge of the Light Brigade
Lord Alfred Tennyson (1809-1892; poem 1880)
Florence Nightingale
(1820-1910)
November 1854: Nightingale and nurses arrived
at Scutari
Where do we fight?
• Baltic Sea?
• Black Sea, particularly Romania
– Summer 1854 Allied landings at Varna
– June 3, 1854 Vienna issued an ultimatum to
Russians to evacuate Romania
– Russians not there anymore
– Austrian army entered Romania
Map Europe
Map Crimean War
How about fighting in the Crimea?
• If Sebastopol remained in Russian hands,
London was doomed
• September 14, 1854 Allies landed in the
Crimea
• September 1855 Sebastopol fell to the Allies
Russia attacks Turkey
• Initial Russian operations against the Ottoman
empire were conducted in Romania with the Russian
army crossing the River Pruth into Moldavia on 2
July 1853. In response Turkey declared war on
Russia on 5 October. On 4 November, the Russians
destroyed the Turkish fleet at Sinope, on Turkey's
Black Sea coast, sinking seven frigates and other
shipping. The British and French responded quickly.
In March 1854, they declared war on Russia
expecting, with their naval supremacy, a quick
victory. The allied forces were mustered at Varna
in Bulgaria and they prepared for an all-out assault
on Russian forces in the Crimea to seize the naval
base at Sevastopol.
Allied landings
• A joint invasion force, over 60,000 strong, of British,
French and Turkish troops landed at Kalamatia Bay, north
of Sevastopol, on 14 -16 September 1854. The landings
were unopposed by the Russians. W.H. Russell, an Irish
journalist writing for The Times, witnessed the early allied
operations and noted that 'The French, though they had
tents, had no cavalry; the Turks had neither cavalry nor
food; the British had cavalry, but they had neither tents
nor transport, nor ambulances nor litters.' It was clear
that there were flaws in the organisation of the joint
forces.
• On 19 September, the allies started their move south
towards the strategically important city of Sevastopol.
There was a minor skirmish on the Bulganek River on 21
September, paving the way for the first set-piece battle of
the war which took place on the following day at Alma.
The Battle of Alma
• The Battle of Alma saw the combined British and French
armies attack a Russian force that was occupying high land
above the River Alma. The French were on the right, with
their right flank next to the sea and the British to their
left. Facing the allies were some 33,000 Russian troops. In
order to drive forward the advance to Sevastapol, it was
necessary for the allies to cross the River Alma and then
attack well-defended positions on higher ground. So
confident were the Russians that the allies would be
defeated that picnic parties came out of the city to watch
the expected victory. The French opened the assault but
they faltered, pinned down in vineyards below the Russian
positions. Following the order 'The infantry will
advance', an uphill attack was taken up by the British
Light and Second Divisions. It was a powerful offensive
and the Russians were forced to flee their positions,
having lost 1,755 men and sustained some 6,000 casualties.
The British lost 362 men with 1,600 wounded.
The siege of Sevastopol
• The move to take Sevastopol continued the following
day. Once they had secured operating bases - the
British at Balaklava and the French at Kamiesch Bay
adjacent to Sevastopol - the allies set about
besieging the city. However, as they only held
positions to the south of Sevastopol, this allowed the
Russians free access to the city from the north and
east, enabling them to threaten the allied bases and
forces.
• The Russian army lay to the east of Sevastopol in
order both to defend its supply lines from the
eastern side of the Crimean peninsular and to
threaten the British lines of communication. On 25
October, this Russian army moved towards the
British lines between their base at Balaklava and
Sevastopol. This move resulted in the Battle of
Balaklava and the infamous Charge of the Light
Brigade.
Allied positions before Sevastopol
This map shows the allied army positions in relation to
Sevastopol before the Battle of Balaklava. British positions
are marked in red, French in blue, Turkish in yellow and
Russian in green. The location of the Battle of Inkerman is
also marked.
The Battle of Balaklava
• The Battle of Balaklava is remembered primarily for
the Charge of the Light Brigade. However, there were
other events in the battle that, militarily, were equally
important.
• An important factor in the Battle of Balaklava was the
terrain over which it was fought. Two valleys, separated
by a ridge, were the scenes of three distinct phases of
the battle: two cavalry charges and a standing defence
by the 93rd Highlanders. The ridge was significant in
that it obscured the action in the north valley from the
view of the Commander-in-Chief, Lord Raglan. His
inability to see what was happening may have been one
reason for the confusing order sent to the Light Brigade
during the battle.
The Battle of Balaklava
• 25 October 1854 saw the British and French forces
dispersed to the south of Sevastopol. The French
forces were based on the harbour at Kamiesch to the
south-west of the city and the British at Balaklava to
the south-east. British and French forces were also
manning defensive positions due south of Sevastopol.
Between the British positions on the edge of Sevastopol
and their base at Balaklava were a number of Turkish
and French troops.
Map of the Battle of Balaklava
Map of the Battle of Balaklava showing the battlefield, including the
Fedyukhin heights occupied by the Russians. British positions are
marked in red. The locations of the charges by both the Heavy
Brigade and the Light Brigade are also marked.
'The Thin Red Line'
• The first move by Russian forces towards Balaklava
was repulsed by the stand of the 93rd Highlanders, led
by Major-General Sir Colin Campbell. Campbell formed
his men into a line (rather than into a square, which
was the accepted way for infantry to face a cavalry
charge) and the probing Russian advance was driven
off with volleys of musket fire. This action became
known as 'The Thin Red Line'.
The Charge of the Heavy Brigade
• Repelled by the 93rd Highlanders, the Russians
regrouped and moved more of their cavalry into the
south valley. Brigadier-General Scarlett, commander
of the Heavy Brigade of cavalry, saw this and
anticipated another Russian attack. He moved
quickly and led the Heavy Brigade on an uphill
charge into some 2,000 Russian horsemen before
the enemy could complete its preparations. The
Russians were duly forced back into the north valley.
The Charge of the Light Brigade
• Meanwhile the Light Brigade, commanded by MajorGeneral the Earl of Cardigan, was awaiting orders. The
brigade consisted of the 13th Light Dragoons, 4th
Light Dragoons, 17th Lancers, 8th Hussars and 11th
Hussars. The Light Brigade, together with the Heavy
Brigade, made up the cavalry division which was
commanded by Lieutenant-General the Earl of Lucan.
The Charge of the Light Brigade
• The order which came stated: 'Lord Raglan wishes the cavalry
to advance rapidly to the front - follow the enemy and try to
prevent the enemy carrying away the guns. Troop Horse
Artillery may accompany. French cavalry is on your left. R
Airey. Immediate.'
• The order was brought initially to Lucan by Captain Nolan, a
talented cavalry officer serving as aide-de-camp to BrigadierGeneral Airey (the Quarter Master General). Lucan passed the
order on to Cardigan who, in response, led a charge of 673
soldiers up the length of the valley between two rows of
Russian artillery on the heights. They were bombarded from
all sides and suffered heavy casualties. It was a fiasco and
only a charge by French cavalry saved the Light Brigade from
total destruction. The battle ended with the Russians
retaining their guns and their position, although they had
failed to break through the British lines.
“The Relief of the Light Brigade"
• Contemporary pictures of
the Charge of the Light
Brigade are rare. This
later painting illustrates
the moment when the
remnants of the Light
Brigade finally reach the
Russian guns at the far
end of the 'valley of
death'.
• "The Relief of the Light
Brigade" by Richard Caton
Woodville (1897) Courtesy of the National
Army Museum, London
'Someone had blundered'?
• The interpretation of the order to attack has been the
subject of intense speculation by historians. A popular theory is
that the order referred to recapturing Turkish guns that were
being taken by Russian forces in the hills above the battlefield.
Nolan, however, seems to have assumed the target was the
Russian guns about a mile away up the north valley and may have
advised Lucan to lead the charge there. Nolan, who charged with
the 17th Lancers, was the first to be killed and was thus unable to
clarify this point.
• Lucan and Cardigan for their part hated each other. (Cardigan had
been married to Lucan's youngest sister but was now separated
from her.) None of the personalities involved in initiating the
charge appear to have acted well. Raglan's order was imprecise,
Airey's drafting of the order was ambiguous, Nolan failed to
explain the order to Lucan adequately, Lucan failed to question
Nolan properly to establish his commander's intent and Cardigan
failed to seek adequate clarification from Lucan. Lucan also failed
to provide the support from the rest of the cavalry and the horse
artillery mentioned in the order. After the charge, Lord Raglan
blamed Lucan.
Battle of Inkerman
• After the failure to break the British lines of communication
on 25 October, the Russians made a further attempt to
defeat the British with a surprise attack at Inkerman on 5
November 1854. The Russians attacked the British in very
foggy conditions. There was a fierce hand-to-hand battle
that raged all day and resulted in thousands of casualties,
mostly on the Russian side. This action became known as 'the
Soldier's Battle'. As dusk fell, the British finally held the
field, having received useful, if belated, help from the
French.
• After Inkerman the British and French continued to besiege
Sevastopol. Finally, following a major assault in September
1855, the Russians evacuated the city, having kept the allies
out for almost a year.
• The Crimean War ended in the spring of 1856 but
wrangling over the details of the Charge of the Light Brigade
and who was at fault continued into the following decade. The
last man who took part in the Charge died in 1924.
Battle of Inkerman
• This drawing, from a
report in the Plymouth and
Devonport Weekly
Journal, shows '…the
Bayonet Charge of Sir
George Cathcart's
Division, in the Valley of
Inkerman,…the Charge of
the Guards and French
Infantry; the death of
General Strangways, on
the Heights, surrounded
by Lord Raglan and
Staff;… the terrific scene
among the Dead, Dying and
Wounded, barbarous
Cruelties of the Russians
to our Wounded, etc., etc.’
(November 1854)
Maladministration in the British army
• One of the significant features of the Crimean
War was the dreadful conditions and neglect
endured by the troops. Not only were living
conditions very poor, but medical supplies for
troops in the field were also inadequate.
• W.H. Russell's reports for The Times revealed
the true depth of suffering and
maladministration, particularly during the winter
of 1854. These accounts upset Queen Victoria,
who described them as these 'infamous attacks
against the army which have disgraced our
newspapers'. Prince Albert, who took a keen
interest in military matters, commented that 'the
pen and ink of one miserable scribbler is
despoiling the country‘.
"The Queen visiting the Imbeciles of the Crimea"
Increasing criticisms of conditions suffered by British troops in the
Crimea and of those responsible for them are reflected in this
contemporary cartoon. Note the state of the medical department
under review.
Punch, April 1855
Medical care
• The public outcry concerning the care of the soldiers
eventually led to a number of nurses, including
Florence Nightingale, being sent to the hospital at
Scutari, across the Bosphorus from Constantinople.
Another famous woman who cared for the sick and
wounded was Mary Seacole, who came from Jamaica.
• Other improvements in medical care were developed,
including the first hospital train built by the firm of
Peto, Brassey and Betts, and the first prefabricated
hospital designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel. This
hospital with, initially, 22 wards was erected at
Renkioi in Turkey. Although the care of sick and
injured soldiers improved, disease had been the
biggest killer in the Crimean War.
• Following the war, a number of enquiries were made
into the running of the British army, and the process
of reforming its medical care, which was to take half a
century, began.
Endgame




March 2, 1855: Nicholas I died
Alexander II vowed change
Armistice signed on 29 February 1856
Treaty of Paris 30 March 1856:
 Black Sea became neutral territory, no warships
 Ottoman independence and territorial integrity were to be
“respected.”
 Ottomans had to proclaim Muslims and non-Muslims equal
before the law.
 Moldavia and Wallachia back under nominal Ottoman rule
 Russia lost territory it had been granted at the mouth of
the Danube
 Russia forced to abandon its claims to protect Christians in the
Ottoman Empire in favour of France.
Peace Negotiations in Vienna
• March 1, 1855 Nicholas died and Alexander II
became Tsar
• December 1855 Austrian ultimatum to the Russians
– Free passage of Danube mouth and new agreement for
the Straits
– Protectorate of all Christians
– Neutral Black Sea
– Part of Bessarabia back to Turkey
Alexander II (ruled 1855-1881)
TREATY OF PARIS, MARCH 30, 1856
• European (not Russian) guarantees for Christians in
Ottoman Empire
• Neutral passage of Straits, Black Sea, and Danube for
all shipping
• Danube placed under the control of an international
commission (still exists)
• Status of Moldavia and Walachia to be determined
by an international conference
• Ottoman Empire admitted to “Concert of Europe”
Map
SIGNIFICANCE
• The Crimean War was the
initial modern conflict
• Firsts
– trenches
– telegraphs
– Railways
• Nevertheless, poor
communications, strategic
errors, and disease cost an
inordinate number of lives
SIGNIFICANCE
• The only hero of the struggle
was Florence Nightingale
– Helped found the nursing
profession and demonstrated
how women were capable of
taking on productive public
roles.
SIGNIFICANCE
• The war revealed
Russia’s technological
and economic
backwardness.
• To end the conflict
Russia had to agree to
demilitarize the Black
Sea and halt its
expansion into the
Balkans
SIGNIFICANCE
• The war showed the lack of preparation
among European nations for modern war.
– Ideals of honor and glory outweighed true
military preparation for the realities of war.
• Britain had experienced 40 years of relative peace
and had few battle-hardened veterans and had
reduced standing army. Many units more
interested in flashy uniforms and parades than
mechanics of war
• Glorified war because of lack of knowledge
IMPACT
• The war destroyed the Concert of Europe,
encouraging states to pursue national
interests with little regard for the effects on
the international order.
• France’s Napoleon III considered the war
a great victory and was falsely convinced
of France’s strength and prominence.
IMPACT
• British leaders felt
disappointed at the
cost and the outcome
and fell into “splendid
isolation” for half a
century, standing
aside while Italy and
Germany unified.
Palmerston
IMPACT
• Austria had isolated itself,
a fatal error as it would
face two wars in the next
ten years.
Franz Joseph
• Russia, before the ink
was dry on the treaty, was
determined to reform
internally and continued
its expansion at the first
opportunity.
Alexander
IMPACT
• Art and literature of the Romantic Era
glorified the war
– The Charge of the Light Brigade
• Alfred, Lord Tennyson
Half a league, half a
league,
Half a league onward,
All in the valley of Death
Rode the six hundred.
"Forward, the Light
Brigade!
"Charge for the guns!" he
said:
Into the valley of Death