Transcript 1848 to Unification Notes

The Long 19th Century
1789-1900
Liberal spill over…
Europe after the French Revolution experiences
continued turmoil…
• New ‘liberal’ policies – refining its meaning
• Nationalist- Independence Movements
• Continued discontent among the lower classes
• Continued calls for political reform
• English legislation and a realigning of political
parties
Palmer ...’a vicious circle was set endlessly revolving’
Evolution of Liberal Ideology
• Pre 1789: John Locke, Adam Smith –
‘Enlightenment-like’
• Post 1815: “types of liberalism”
– Classical English Liberalism
– New moderate French Liberalism
– Liberalism as expressed through right to selfgovernment – independence movements
• Post 1848:
– More radical after the failure of the
revolutions (emergence of Marxist
philosophy)
Evolution of Liberalism
Liberalism
after 1848:
Marxism
Socialism
Liberalism
after 1789:
Democratic
reform
Republican
Government
Original
Liberalism
Bourgeoisie
Locke
British Model
Conservatism
Monarchy
Aristocracy
Early 19th
Century
1815-1848
British Liberalism
• John Stuart Mill : Utilitarianism, On Liberty
– Women’s suffrage, graduated income tax
• Political Parties (Whigs & Tories)
– Tories (liberal reform) Robert Peel, George Canning
• Catholic Emancipation Act 1829
• Repeal of the Corn Laws 1846 (anti-mercantilist)
• Factory Act 1833, Slavery Abolished
– Whig (political reform) -Rotten Boroughs, Voting
Rights – Reform Bill 1832 (1 of 6 males)
• Chartists (Charter of 1838) universal male
suffrage, secret ballot, 1 person, 1 vote (Populists
of England)
Potato Famine
1847 – Black ’47 Peak
1841 census recorded
an Irish population of 8.2
million.
By 1851 this figure had
been reduced to 6.5
million
Revolutionary Movements 1820s
Revolutionary Movements 1830s
The Eastern Question
What will become of the
Ottoman Empire?
Bourbon Restoration
1830
Challenges to early 18th C
Liberalism
• The Conservative upper class
– Too many changes
• The Lower urban working classes
– Not enough changes
• Organized religions
– Too secular
Revolution & the birth of
the Nation State
1848-1871
Why 1848?
• A.J.P. Taylor, "history reached its turning point
and failed to turn".
• Hans Rothfels, "Failure or not, 1848 was a
genuine turning point. The year 1850 no more
restored 1847 than 1815 had returned to 1788". .
..
• Lewis Namier, “1848 remains a seed-plot of
history. It crystallized ideas and projected the
pattern of things to come; it determined the
course of the following century."
France 1848
• Louis Phillipe’s government ignored the needs
and demands of the workers in the cities.
• February 1848
– 3 days of fighting
– King abdicated
• December 1848:
Louis Napoleon elected
– Second Republic
– (Napoleon III –nephew)
– Napoleonic Legend
June Days
Napoleonic Legacy
Arc de Triomphe
•Started during
Napoleonic Rule
1808
•Completed under
Louis Philippe
1833-1836
"When France sneezes Europe
catches a cold".
Metternich
Compare and Contrast
political liberalism with
political conservatism in the
first half of the nineteenth
century in Europe.
Springtime of the People
Völkerfrühling
Revolutions of 1848
Austria 1848
• Hapsburgs @ Vienna
• Ethnic minorities (Hungarians, Slavs, Czechs,
Italian, Serbs, Croats)
• Serfdom, feudal order
• Authoritarian rule, no liberal institutions
• Metternich dismissed by Hapsburgs, fled the
country
• Series of Rebellions throughout empire
– Vienna: abolition of serfdom
– Bohemia: (Prague Conference – Panslavism)
– Hungary: Nationalist Movement
Slavic Nationalism
"The Slavs ask nothing but justice; they rest
upon moral force only....It is only by
struggle that we pass from slavery to
liberty. Let us therefore be victors, and we
shall be free in a free nation, or let us die
with honour, and glory will follow us to the
grave."
Pavel Jozef Šafárik
1815
German Confederation, 1848
• Liberals demanded a constitutional government & a
union of German states (Nationalist movement)
• Frankfurt Parliament (1848)
– Called for elections to a constituent assembly for
purposes of unification
– Sought war to annex Schleswig & Holstein
– Presented Constitution & Invited Prussian Frederick
William to serve as King
– Humiliation of Olmutz: Austria demanded Prussian
allegiance to German Confederation (German Dualism)
Why did Frederick William reject offer?
There is no power on earth that can succeed
in making me transform the natural
relationship between prince and people ...
into a constitutional relationship, and I
never will permit a written sheet of paper
to come between our God in heaven and
this land ... to rule us with its paragraphs
and supplant the old, sacred loyalty."
New Toughness of Mind
Palmer
•
•
•
•
•
Failure of 1848
Idealism and romanticism discredited
A return to realism, science, skepticism
Positivism – August Comte (sociology)
Emergence of Marxist Communism (as a
philosophy – not a reality)
• Realpolitik: politics of reality
– Follow practical interests
Nationalism:1815-1900
From France and across the central and
southern portions of the continent,
proponents of nationalism vigorously
pushed their agendas
But what did nationalism mean to
people in the nineteenth century?
Nationalism: Early Stirrings…
prior to 1848
Revolutionary!
Rulers throughout Europe believed that nationalism
would be a destabilizing force in existing
governments-Therefore, they did all they could to
crush nationalist sentiments within their own
domains and sometimes helped their neighbors
put down nationalist uprisings
Nationalism: after 1848
• A more practical approach developed
• More Machiavellian than romantic
• Realpolitik
–Germany – Bismarck’s Blood and iron
–Italy – Cavour
• Turning Point: Crimean War ended
Concert System
Crimean War 1854-1856
• Russia wanted further breakdown of Ottoman
territories (clash of liberal nationalism and
conservative nationalism)
• Under pretext of protection of Christians in
Near East (traditionally role of France)
Russia
CRIMEA
PENINSULA
Ottoman
France
Britain
Piedmont
Austria (protect Balkans)
Charge of the Light Brigade
Alfred, Lord Tennyson
"Forward, the Light
Brigade!"
Was there a man
dismay'd?
Not tho' the soldier knew
Someone had blunder'd:
Theirs not to make reply,
Theirs not to reason why,
Theirs but to do and die:
Into the valley of Death
Rode the six hundred.
Battle of Balaclava
Florence Nightingale
Technology
• Photographs
• Telegraphs
Impact of the Crimean War
• Weakened the authority of several rulers (Russia and
Austria specifically weakened)
• undermined the existing balance of power system in
Europe (Prussia & Italy especially wanted change)
• strained international relations so much that rulers
would no longer come to the aid of a neighbor or friend
in times of crisis (end of concert system)
• 1860s & 1870s see rebirth of nationalist sentiment
• when nationalist movements arose again in Europe in
the 1860s and 1870s, they found much more fertile
ground than they had twenty to thirty years earlier
Italian Unification
Risorgimento
Venetia
Lombardy
Sardinia- Piedmont
ruled by House of
Savoy (Victor
Emmanuel II)
Naples ruled by
Bourbon
SardiniaPiedmont
Papal States
Papal States
possession of the
Roman See
Venetia & Lombardy
possession of Austria
Naples
Kingdom of Two Sicilies
North Central Italy
were Duchies of:
Tuscany
Modena
Parma
Italian Unification
• Early Leaders: Mazzini, Pius IX (until Syllabus of Errors)
• Count Cavour Sardinia-Piedmont (NW) - Realpolitik
– Prime minister, editor of Il Risorgimento (newspaper)
– Built a liberal and economically sound state (railroads,
docks, agricultural improvements)
– Curtailed the influence of the Church (abolish church
courts)
– Sought unification of Northern and Central Italy
– Joined Crimean War
– Plombieres 1859 – French Promise of support in war
with Austria
– Provoked war with Austria (1859:Franco-Austrian
War)
Italian Unification
By 1860 – the North Unified
– Franco-Austrian War settlement
• Lombardy to Piedmont
– Plebiscite: Tuscany, Modena, Parma to Piedmont
In the South…Armed expedition
– Giuseppe Garibaldi & Red Shirts (1,150)
– Landed in Sicily, moved to Mainland
– Two Sicilies collapsed (Bourbons)
• Made move to Rome, agreed to endorse King
Victor Emmanuel II
– Plebicites (except Rome)
Italian Unification
• First Parliament of a united Italy in 1861
• Excludes Venetia, Rome
• Venetia added 1866 as result of Austro-Prussian
War
• Rome annexed in 1870 after withdrawal of French
troops
German Unification
German Unification: Background
• Napoleonic Germany – National Awakening
– Intellectual Romantic thinkers
– Herder: Volk or Volksgeist (Zeitgeist (zeit time + geist spirit)
• Stressed differences among nations
• Cultural nationalism
• Suspicious of anything that might corrupt the purity of Volk
– Politically astute and aware of the paternalistic nature of
German government
• Creating a German identity
– Grimm Fair Tales (study of languages)
– Hegelian Dialectic: history is a process.
• The fragmentation of Germany ultimately bred a unified Germany
German Unification: Background
After 1815: Prussia emerged as leading German
State
Zollverein: customs union 1834 -included most
of Germany except Austria and Bavaria
Debate…
Grossdeutsch plan: unified Germany including
Prussia & Austria
Kleindeutsche plan: unified Germany excluding
Austria
Realpolitik
The position of Prussia in Germany will not be
determined by its liberalism but by its power ...
Prussia must concentrate its strength and hold it
for the favourable moment, which has already
come and gone several times. Since the treaties
of Vienna, our frontiers have been ill-designed
for a healthy body politic. Not through speeches
and majority decisions will the great questions of
the day be decided - that was the great mistake
of 1848 and 1849 - but by iron and blood.
German Unification: Bismarck
Junker heritage
1862: Chief Minister
Prussian loyalties, not
German
Constitutional Crisis
“Gap theory”
Lückentheorie – favor
with King
Conservative
Realpolitik: Blood & Iron
• 1864: Danish – German War
– Prussia & Austria defeated Denmark and gained both
Schleswig and Holstein
• 1866: Austro-Prussian War (7 Weeks War)
– Prussia defeated Austria and alliance of German states
to obtain Holstein
– Annexed Schleswig, Holstein, Frankfurt, Hanover,
Nassau
• 1867 North German Confederation
– Excluded Austria & German states south of the Main
River
– Creation of Reichstag & liberal reforms (universal male
suffrage) Prussian King is head of state
1870 Franco- Prussian War
Causes
• Spanish Insurrection – invited Hohenzollern (Leopold II) to
Spanish throne - declined
• Ems Dispatch – French required Prussians to never accept
invite
• Prussian King had been insulted
• Napoleon III declared war on Prussia
Outcome
• Two months – Napoleon captured, gov’t collapsed
• Paris Constituent governments (Paris Commune) declared
Third Republic, continued fight
• January 1871: Hall of Mirrors Bismarck declared the
German Empire
• Last German States (except Austria) joined Prussia
• Annexed Alsace-Lorraine
Kingdom of Prussia in 1866
Annexations after the Seven Weeks War
of 1866
Extensions towards forming the North
German Confederation 1867
Other Germanic territories agree to the
formation of a Second German Empire
after the Franco-Prussian War of 18701871
Consolidation…
1815: German
Confederation
•39 States
1848: Frankfurt Assembly
•Great Germans
•Little Germans
1867: North German
Confederation
•Prussia & 21 other states
•Austria & southern states
excluded
1871: German Empire
•Remaining German states
and Alsace-Lorraine
Europe 1871
Consider also, world
events…
American Civil War
Meiji Restoration
Large powerful Nation
States, with at least the
appearance of liberal
institutions…
What will be there
influence on future
world events??