Transcript Western Civilization I HIS-101

Western Civilization II
HIS-102
Unit 5 - The Enlightenment
The Enlightenment

Enlightenment






Intellectual and cultural movement of the 18th century
Used Scientific Revolution to reexamine all aspects of life
Period of skepticism and criticism of traditional values, beliefs,
and institutions
Discarded dogma, superstition, and the opinions of others
Goal: gain an understanding solely through the use of reason
Main concerns of Enlightened thinkers:



Danger of unchecked and arbitrary authority
Value of religious toleration
Importance of natural law, reason, and human dignity
Characteristics of the Enlightenment

Not all thinkers shared the same ideas



Had confidence in the power of human reason


Stems from the accomplishments of the Scientific Revolution
Declared their independence from the past




Some actually criticized the ideas
There were similar characteristics
Gave a level of self-confidence thinkers did not have before
Believed reason needed autonomy and freedom
“Dare to Know!” (Immanuel Kant)
Were indebted to their immediate predecessors

Voltaire’s “Holy Trinity”: Locke, Bacon, and Newton
Characteristics of the Enlightenment

Applied the scientific method to the organization of
knowledge



Evidence was collected on the rise and fall of nations
Government constitutions were compared
“Cultural project” of the Enlightenment




Used practical, applied knowledge to help spread knowledge
and free public discussion
Wanted “To change the common way of thinking” (Diderot)
Wrote for a larger audience, which included the average
educated person
Some would use satire and fiction as a way of bringing this
message to more people
Leading to Enlightenment

England was the starting point for the Enlightenment




French philosophes examined England



During 17th century, progressive ideas and developments
Home of Newton and Locke
Impact of the Glorious Revolution (1688)
Voltaire visited there and praised its system
Montesquieu used it as the basis of his separation of powers
Paths to the Enlightenment:




Popularization of science
Rise of a new skepticism
Impact of travel literature
Legacy of Newton and Locke

Bernand de
Fontenelle

(1657-1757)
Popularization of Science

Science during the 17th century did not affect the masses



Bernard de Fontenelle (1657-1757)



Works of natural philosophers only affected a small minority
Most of what was written could not be understood by the
average person
Secretary of the French Royal Academy of Science (1691-1741)
Main contribution was bringing science to the upper class
Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686)



Written in French instead of Latin
More accessible to the non-scientific population
Story is about how a man explains the heliocentric view of the
universe in layman’s terms to his lover

Pierre Bayle

(1647-1706)
A New Skepticism

Major impact of the Scientific Revolution was the
population becoming more educated



The more people knew about nature and the universe, the
more they started to question religious truths and doctrines
This led to growing secularization and the rise of skepticism
Pierre Bayle (1647-1706)




French Huguenot scholar and philosopher
Attacked many of the traditional religious attitudes:
superstition, religious intolerance, and dogmatism
Said that you cannot prove which beliefs are true and false
Therefore, all beliefs should be tolerated
A New Skepticism

Morality was separate from religious beliefs


A group of atheists could be more moral than a group of
Christians
Historical and Critical Dictionary (1697)





Starts to question the sources of the Bible
Israeli King David was not the heroic king so often portrayed
In actuality, he was a vicious leader who pillaged, tortured, and
murdered innocent victims
The book was banned in France
Placed on the Index of Prohibited Books shortly after it was
published

Captain James Cook

(1728-1779)
Impact of Travel Literature

During this period, travel literature was popular








Many explorers began to publish accounts of their travels
Examined the new cultures of the world
Showed how advanced some of them were
China was considered a highly developed civilization with a
morally superior form of religion in their Confucianism
Other cultures became known and respected
This led to the rise of cultural relativism
Were more simpler than European ones and they were happier
“The life of savages is so simple, and our societies are such
complicated machines!...They understand nothing about our
manner or our laws, and they are bound to see in them
nothing but shackles disguised in a hundred different ways.”
Impact of Travel Literature

Captain James Cook (1728-1779)





Captain of H.M. Bark Endeavour
Traveled around the world three times
Discovered New Zealand, Tahiti, and eastern shore of Australia
Charted most of the south Pacific
“Endeavour” Journals (1768-1771)





Written during his first voyage around the world
Focused on his discoveries in the Pacific
Discussed the use citrus fruits to help ward off scurvy
Also how he kept his crew in shape through exercise
His book became a best seller

John Locke

(1632-1704)
The Legacy of Newton and Locke


Both gave the intellectual inspiration for the
Enlightenment
Impact of Newton



Through his physics, Newton gave a better understanding of
the universe
If there were laws to the universe, could there be laws to
mankind?
John Locke (1632-1704)



English philosopher
Tried to find the laws of mankind in terms of politics and
justice
Set the stage for Classical Liberalism
John Locke (1632-1704)

Two Treaties On Government (1689)





Criticizes the concept of Divine Right of Kings
Government is a social contract with the people
It is designed to protect man’s natural rights (life, liberty,
property)
If the people do not like what the government is doing, they
have a right to overthrow it
Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)




Every person is born with a tabula rasa (“blank slate”)
Our knowledge comes from our environment
Evil is not hereditary but something that has to be learned
New governments and societies could be created using reason
and natural laws

Reading from Molière (1728)
The Philosophes

Philosophes





A “free thinker” unhampered by the constraints of religion or
dogma in any form
Few were actual philosophers and not all of them were French
Included everything from professors to political scientists to
social reformers
Wanted “to study society with the purpose of making his kind
better and happier”
Salons




Hosted by salonnières, aristocratic women
Gatherings of elite of society and the philosophes
Helped spread ideas outside of academia
Helped to educate women

Voltaire

(1694-1778)
Voltaire (1694-1778)

Voltaire (1694-1778)






Born François Marie Arouet
He was a writer, philosopher, and deist
Used satire to criticize many of the institutions of the day
Targeted the French government and the Catholic Church
Wrote during a time period of censorship
Early Works




Made satirical criticisms of the French aristocracy
Served time in the Bastille for libel when he was in his 20s
He was temporarily exiled in England in 1724
While he was there, he became a great admirer of all things
English (especially Newton and Locke)
Voltaire (1694-1778)

Philosophical Letters (1734)







Written after he returned to France
It was also known as Letters on the English Nation
Compared a healthy and rational nation (Great Britain) to a
very unhealthy one (France)
Discussed the religious and political liberties of the British
Showed great admiration for English culture and politics and
respect for scientists
Praised Britain for having more religious toleration than France
Candide (1759)


Criticized Leibnitzian Optimism (“we live in the best of all
possible worlds”)
Mocked every institution and aspect of the aristocracy
Voltaire (1694-1778)

Philosophy



Écrasez l’infâme (“crush infamy”)




Promoted toleration, civil rights, and free speech
Was very anti-clerical
Saw infamy as all forms of repression, fanaticism, and bigotry
Especially saw this in the Church
Calas case
Was strongly opposed to religious bigotry



Sought to free religion of superstition
“The less superstition, the less fanaticism; and the less
fanaticism, the less misery
Not against religion but rather against narrow dogma
Voltaire (1694-1778)

He was a big believer in civil liberties


Saw inspiration in “enlightened despotism”


He once said to a political opponent: “I do not agree with a
word you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say
it”
Still viewed monarchy as necessary
Voltaire’s works caused him many problems



He was forced into temporary exile numerous times
His books were banned and burned
However, because of his popularity, the French kings had to
tolerate him

Charles-Louis de
Secondat,
baron de
Montesquieu

(1689-1755)
Montesquieu (1689-1755)

Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu (16891755)





Philosophe and political writer
Was more cautious and less provocative in his work
Born into a noble family
Became magistrate in the parlement of Bordeaux
Persian Letters (1721)




Story of two Persians travelling to Paris
Examination of Parisian life through the eyes of foreigners
Criticized all aspects of France (e.g., criminal justice system,
lack of equality between sexes, etc.)
Was able to criticize society and avoid censorship
Montesquieu (1689-1755)

The Spirit of Laws (1748)








Examined different types of governments using an empirical
approach
Believed there were three different types of governments
Republic was either a democracy or rule by an aristocracy
(virtue)
Monarchy was limited by the law (honor)
Despotism does not follow the law and there is fear of the
ruler (fear)
There was no one perfect type of government that would
work everywhere
Each country’s system should be based on its traditions and
cultures
For example, hot climates should have despotism to get people
working
Montesquieu (1689-1755)

Balance of Power




Most important section of Spirit focused on separation and
balance of power
Built upon the structure set up in England
Major influence on the writers of the U.S. constitution
Criticism of France



Realized France was drifting towards despotism
Wanted to use either the parlements or the aristocracy to
counter-balance the monarchy
However, aristocracy was very corrupt during this period

Denis Diderot

(1713-1784)
Denis Diderot (1713-1784)


Denis Diderot (1713-1784)
Encyclopédie, or a systematic dictionary of the sciences, arts,
and crafts (1751-1772)







A 28 volume set that he edited
Its main goal was to change the way people thought
"All things must be examined, debated, investigated without
exception and without regard for anyone's feelings“
Even though the cost was high, it still had high circulation
despite the high price
Articles were written by numerous philosophes
Attacked religious dogma and superstition
Encouraged religious toleration
Denis Diderot (1713-1784)

Philosophy



Christianity was “the most absurd and the most atrocious
in its dogma”


He liked to comment on the more popular themes at the time
Mainly discussed Christianity and government
Went from being a deist to an atheist
Attacked the monarchy


“Man will never be free until the last king is strangled with the
entrails of the last priest”
“And his hands would plait the priest's entrails, For want of a
rope, to strangle kings.”

Page from the
Encyclopédie

It illustrates Truth
in the middle
shining its light
Humanitarianism

Humanitarianism



Criminals were subject to torture




Focused on the dignity and worth of all individuals
This had many different aspects including legal reform
Including branding, whipping and various forms of mutilation
Numerous crimes involved the death penalty
There were public executions
Trial of Jean Calas (1762)




Illustrated the flaws with the criminal justice system
Calas was found guilty of murdering his son
Argued that Calas, a protestant, wanted to kill his son to
prevent him from converting to Catholicism
There was no proof of this
Humanitarianism

Punishment included being tortured twice and then put
to death





First round of torture was to garner a confession
Second round was to find his accomplices
Included having his arms and legs slowly pulled apart, having
gallons of water poured down his throat, and then “broken on
the wheel” in public
He then had his head cut off
Voltaire took on this case


Became his own crusade against anti-Protestant fanaticism
Convinced the court in 1765 that Calas was actually innocent

Cesare Beccaria

(1738–1794)
Cesare Beccaria (1738–1794)

Cesare Beccaria (1738–1794)


On Crimes and Punishments (1764)





He was an Italian jurist who focused on humanitarianism and
legal reform
Attacked the common view that punishment represented
society’s vengeance on the criminal
Argued that the legitimate rationale for punishment was to
maintain social order and prevent other crimes (deterrence)
Exposed the public to horrors of torture being used
Also illustrated the dehumanizing process of public executions
By 1800, a number of countries eliminated torture and
limited the death penalty to capital crimes

Many believe this was influenced by Beccaria’s work

Gotthold Lessing

(1729-1781)
Religious Toleration

Religious Toleration


Many philosophes were against religious institutions and
dogmas





Called for an end to religious warfare and persecution of
heretics
Most of them considered themselves religious
Some who considered themselves agnostics
Only a small few considered themselves atheists
Attacked Christianity for being too superstitious
Deism



Common belief amongst the philosophes
God was like a “divine clockmaker”
Do not believe God intervenes in the everyday life of mankind
Religious Toleration

Religious toleration was mainly limited to Christianity




A number of the philosophes saw Jews and Muslims as being
“backwards” and full of superstition and ritual
Others called Jews heretics and “Christ killers”
Some who believed in toleration of non-Christians as well
Gotthold Lessing (1729–1781)



Treated Jews sympathetically in his play Nathan the Wise (1779)
Stated there was not one true religion
Believed the three monotheistic religions were three versions
of the same truth

Adam Smith

(1723-1790)
Economic Reforms


The philosophes also addressed economic policy
The shape of the state was changing



A rise in the financial demands of states and their rising
empires
How could a government make the most of its resources?
French physiocrats





Saw an inherent natural order that properly governed society
Spoke out against mercantilism
True wealth came from land and agricultural production
They called for a simplified tax system
Laissez-faire - Wealth and goods should circulate without
government interference
Economic Reforms

Adam Smith (1723–1790)



Pushed the concept of laissez-faire economics was
Scottish economist who took in the ideas of the physiocrats
Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations
(1776)



Restrictions associated with mercantilism (e.g. high taxes on
imported goods) did not create real economic well-being
Individuals should chose their own interests without
competition from state-chartered monopolies or legal
restraints
No state regulation of the economy; let business regulate itself

Abbé Raynal

(1711-1796)
Empire and the Enlightenment

Many philosophes studied the effects of the European
empires



Abbé Guillaume Thomas Francois Raynal (1711-1796)


New civilizations were looked upon as symbols of natural
humanity and simplicity
Examined effects of slavery
A French writer and former Jesuit priest
Philosophical History . . . of Europeans in the Two Indies (1770)




A history of colonization
Customs and civilization of indigenous peoples
Natural history
Exploration and commerce
Abbé Raynal (1711-1796)


Raynal believed that these “savages” actually enjoyed a
better life than most Europeans
He argued that colonization can lead to greater happiness



Colonization had the benefit of bringing industry and trade
This brought improvement and progress
So what went wrong in the New World?




He condemned the tactics used in the New World
Took away the “natural liberties” of the native populations
As they had unlimited power, they were arrogant, cruel, and
despotic
Did not have checks and balances

Slavery and the Enlightenment
Slavery and the Enlightenment

Slavery






Atlantic slave trade hit its peak (over 6 million slaves)
Slavery defied natural law and natural freedom
Almost all of the philosophes condemned slavery, but only in a
metaphorical sense
Most were hesitant to quickly condemn the Atlantic slave trade
Few philosophes advocated the total abolition of slavery
Voltaire noted the hypocrisy of his peers


He asked if they would look differently on slavery if it had been
Europeans in chains rather than Africans
But he still saw Africans as being an “inferior” race
Slavery and the Enlightenment

Montesquieu believed that slavery debased both the slave
and master



Diderot clearly spoke out against slavery



But he believed that economies have their own needs and
labor systems
He believed slave labor did help balance out the need for
economies of the colonies
It defied natural law and natural freedom
Slavery was a violation of self-government
Anti-slavery movements did begin to grow but slowly


Many believed that slavery kills the person’s natural desire for
liberty
Therefore, they are not ready for freedom

Jean-Jacques
Rousseau

(1712-1778)
Radical Enlightenment


There were also radical philosophes
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)



He did believe in humanitarianism and the creation of a just
society
Focused on making mankind good
Theory of Natural Man



Praised the virtues of natural man
Natural man does not act morally
“Savage man” does not understand complex concepts such as
“justice” or “evil”
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

Society as a necessary evil




Society was necessary for people to develop their moral
nature and capacity to reason
Society also corrupted by pitting individuals against each other
Called for reforms in political society and education
The Social Contract (1762)




“Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains. One man
thinks himself the master of others, but remains more of a
slave than they."
In humanity’s natural state, all men are equal
Society brings about inequality with its division of labor and
private property
Man becomes more competitive and yet more dependant on
other men
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

Popular Sovereignty






Was against different branches of government and monarchy
He did not believe in representative democracy but rather
direct democracy
This would transformed a nation
Citizens would form a “body politic”
People would be willing to give up certain rights out of mutual
obligation rather than coercive laws
“General Will”



The population would be united together by the “general will”
Common interests would outweigh individual ones
Popular sovereignty will do what is good for the people in
general
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

Émile (1762)







Story of a boy educated about virtue and moral autonomy in
the “school of nature”
Children should not be forced to reason early in life
Books should not be used until adolescence
The aim was moral autonomy and good citizenship
But this education was only to be for men
Women useful as mothers and wives only
Julie, ou la nouvelle Heloise (1761)



Story about a young woman who falls in love with one man but
follows her father’s orders to marry another
It illustrates the domestic and maternal virtues of women
It was popular to both the middle class and the aristocracy

Mary Wollstonecraft

(1759-1797)
Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)




British writer, philosopher, and feminist
Many of her ideas were similar to other philosophes of the time
She also had been Rousseau’s sharpest critic
A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792)






She illustrated numerous Republican ideas
Spoke against inequality and artificial distinctions of rank, birth,
or wealth
Society ought to seek “the perfection of our nature and
capability of happiness”
Women had the same innate capacity for reason and selfgovernment as men
Virtue the same thing for men and women
Relations between the sexes ought to be based on equality
Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)

Wollstonecraft also spoke about issues with the family




Marriage laws were unequal and allowed the husband to be
“despotic” over his wife
Women have been taught to be dependent and seductive in
order to win husbands
Education needs to promote liberty and self-reliance
She did see a natural division of labor between men and
women

A woman’s main job was mothering and educating her children

Europe (c. 1700)
Enlightened Absolutism

Secularization of the monarchy




Monarchs no longer pressed the issue of divine-right
Took up more utilitarian viewpoint: they were there to provide
services to the well-being of their state
These ideas were strongly supported by the philosophes
Enlightened monarchs





Rulers who took on enlightened ideas
Believed that their power was similar to the absolute
monarchs
Included hereditary rights and refusing constitutions
Believed in improving the lives of their subjects
Strengthen a monarch’s authority rather than hurt it
Enlightened Absolutism

Characteristics of an “enlightened” monarch:





Reforms must come from above


Allowing religious toleration
Promoting freedom of speech and press
Avoiding arbitrary rule
Obeying laws of the land and enforce them fairly
Rulers start the reforms to help the people
Each enlightened monarch approached social reforms in
different ways but they were all effective

Frederick the Great

(1740-1786)
Frederick the Great (1740-1786)

Frederick the Great (1740-1786)









Just the opposite of his father, Frederick William I
Was more interested in the arts than the military
His childhood was not an easy one
Endured mental and physical abuse from his father
In 1730, he and a few friends attempted to escape to England
Frederick William arrested them at the border
Frederick and his friend were found guilty of treason and
desertion
They were to be executed
After begging for forgiveness, his father made him watch his
friend’s execution
Frederick the Great (1740-1786)

Forced marriage





He was forced to marry Elisabeth Christine of BrunswickBevern
She was supposedly very ugly
After the wedding ceremony he never saw her again
He named his younger brother, Augustus William, as heir to the
throne
Taking Silesia



His first step as king was to invade Silesia, which was under
Austrian control
At the end of the First Silesian War, he had control of Silesia
Frederick spent the next years securing Silesia and expanding
his control over parts of Poland
Frederick the Great (1740-1786)

France and Austria were concerned about Prussia’s
growing power


So they allied together against him
The Seven Years War (1756-1763)







Fought between Prussia and most of Europe
Only England did not join the fight
It looked like Prussia was going to lose
Empress Elizabeth I of Russia died in 1762
She was succeeded by her son Peter III
Peter pulled the Russian troops out
Frederick was now able to negotiate a peace that was in his
favor
Frederick the Great (1740-1786)

Division of Poland



For a number of years, Prussia, Russia and the Ottoman Turks
were vying for control of Poland
It was decided that the control of territory would be given
over to three countries: Russia, Prussia, and Austria
First Partition of Poland (1772)



Poland was divided up
Prussia gained a large amount of territory including access to
the Baltic Sea
It was at this point that Frederick took the title King of Prussia
Frederick the Great (1740-1786)

Enlightened despot



He brought about numerous social reforms





Corresponded with many of the philosophes of the time
His philosophy was that “I am the first servant of the state”
He made the law codes less severe
He encouraged religious toleration
“All religions are equal and good and as long as those
practicing are an honest people and wish to populate our land,
may they be Turks or Pagans, we will build them mosques and
churches.”
He set up a system of elementary schools
Frederick also promoted the growth of the arts
Frederick the Great (1740-1786)

He also tried to modernize Prussia


He was able to gain the support of the Junkers, the landed
nobility


This included the development of new industries, including silk
factories
Gave them jobs in his administration and high ranks in the
nobility
He died in 1786 supposedly while eating hot eel pie

From this point on the Prussian government went into a
decline

Joseph II

(1765-1790)
Joseph II of Austria (1765-1790)

Joseph II of Austria (1765-1790)






Educated through reading the works of Voltaire and other
philosophes
These ideas strongly appealed to him
Was attracted to the policies of Frederick the Great
Became co-regent with his mother, Empress Maria Theresa, in
1765
She prevented him from making any reforms because of her
conservatism
Joseph took sole possession of the throne in 1780


Wanted to enhance the power of the Habsburgs both
domestically and in Europe
Wanted to Implement major social change to Austria
Joseph II of Austria (1765-1790)

He planned to follow the path of reason


Abolished serfdom in 1787



Nobility disliked this as they were dependent on their labor
Peasants did not like the new monetary system
Changed the penal code



“I have made Philosophy the lawmaker of my empire, her
logical applications are going to transform Austria.”
He abolished the death penalty in 1787
He established the policy of equality before the law
Implemented laissez-faire policies


He removed all internal trade barriers
Ended domestic monopolies and removed guild restrictions
Joseph II of Austria (1765-1790)

Reformed the schools




Most of the schools in the Empire were run by the Catholic
church
Opened up state run schools that could be attended by both
Protestants and Jews
Only a 30% attendance rate but that was very impressive for a
time
Supporter of religious tolerance


Wanted complete religious toleration throughout his empire
Patent of Tolerance in 1781 which provided a limited guarantee
of freedom of worship
Joseph II of Austria (1765-1790)

He placed restrictions on the Catholic Church



Reducing the size of the clergy and religious orders in the
Empire
Dissolved over 800 monasteries over the course of his reign
Other reforms:



Required the use of German as the only political language
Allowed for civil marriage and divorce
He issued over 6,000 decrees and made 11,000 laws over the
course of his reign
Joseph II of Austria (1765-1790)

Not everybody was happy with the reforms






Joseph became ill in 1788




Nobility were unhappy due to the emancipation of the serfs
Serfs were unhappy with all the changes taking place
Catholic church was unhappy because of all the new
restrictions
Non-Germans did not like speaking German
By the end of his reign, both nobles and peasants were rising
up in revolt throughout his Empire
His minister refused to grant him an audience
Even his brother Leopold, refused to visit him
He died in February 1790
His reforms were dismantled by his successors

Catherine the Great

(1762-1796)
Catherine the Great (1762-1796)

Catherine the Great (1762-1796)





Born Sophie Friederike Auguste von Anhalt-Zerbst
Came from a minor German royal family
Received a French styled education and was exposed to the
works of the philosophes
Her mother paved the way for Catherine’s marriage to a high
ranking politician
The Marriage




Catherine married the future Russian tsar, Grand Duke Peter
in 745
There were questions of impotence and extreme immaturity
Marriage was not consummated for eight years
Her mother-in-law told her to take a lover to provide an heir
Catherine the Great (1762-1796)

Catherine had many lovers through the course of her
reign


She quickly began to integrate herself into Russian culture



She believed the father of her son Paul was Sergei Saltykov, not
Peter
Wanted the Russian people to see her as being worthy of the
crown of Tsarina
Learned Russian, converted to Russian Orthodox, and even
changed her name to Ekaterina Alexeyevna
On January 5, 1762 Empress Elizabeth died

Peter took the throne as Peter III

Peter III

(Jan. 5- July 9, 1762)
Catherine the Great (1762-1796)

Peter was unpopular with the nobility





His foreign policies were of greatest concern
Pulled Russia out of the war against Frederick the Great
Got Russia involved in a unpopular dispute between Holstein
and Demark
Catherine became friendly with a group of nobility who
strongly disliked Peter
Overthrow (July 9, 1792)



The Leib Guards (the emperor’s personal guards) revolted
Deposed of Peter III and placed Catherine as the new ruler
Peter seemed to actually enjoy the news
Catherine the Great (1762-1796)

The overthrow was conspired by Catherine and her lover
at the time, Grigori Orlov


Believed that Catherine was fearful that Peter would divorce
her
Death of Peter




On July 17, 1762, Peter was killed while in custody at the
imperial estate at Ropsha
Alexei Orlov, Grigori’s brother, was involved along with a
number of other guards
Historians believe that Catherine had nothing to do with the
murder itself
At the time the official cause of death was listed as
“hemorrhoidal colic” but it is now believed to have been
poison
Catherine the Great (1762-1796)

Once on the throne, Catherine was quick to reform




Had been corresponding with the likes of Voltaire and Diderot
However, she could not lose support of the nobility
This was a huge error that many of her contemporaries
Legal Reforms








Called for the election of an Legislative Commission in 1767
Purpose was to write a new legal code
Catherine wrote Instruction as a guide for the deliberations
Ideas based on the philosophes
Called for all people were to be equal under the law
She disapproved of death penalty and torture
Questioned serfdom but was not able to give a specific fix to it
Commission failed to put anything into practice
Catherine the Great (1762-1796)

Reorganization of the government




Charter of the Nobility (1785)



Divided Russia into 50 provinces and numerous districts
Officials would be selected by the local nobility
Allowed the nobility to become involved in running the
government
Established the nobility as a separate estate in Russian society
Assured them certain privileges
Peasants and serfs suffered with these pro-nobility
policies


From 1762-1769, more than fifty peasant revolts occurred
Were unhappy with the increasing protection and
responsibilities the nobility were getting
Catherine the Great (1762-1796)


In 1767, serfs were no longer allowed to petition the
state against their masters
Pugachev’s Rebellion (1774-1775)





Led by a Cossack named Emelyan Pugachev
Issued a manifesto in July 1774 which called for the freedom of
all peasants from taxes and military service
The peasants supported Pugachev
Killed more than 1,500 estate owners and their families
Pugachev was defeated and executed
Catherine the Great (1762-1796)

Catherine responded with harsher treatment of peasants



Reorganized the government to prevent future revolts


She ended all rural reforms
Serfdom was expanded into the newer parts of the empire
Powers were divided amongst different agencies and more
provinces were created
Expansion of the Russian empire



Russo-Turkish War (1768-1774) gave them a warm water port
that had direct access to the Black Sea
She also played an integral role in the partitions of Poland
Russia received 50% of Polish territory

Catherine on
her horse
Enlightened Absolutism?

Three main rulers associated with the Enlightenment





Only Joseph II completely braced the ideas of the
Enlightenment and attempted massive reforms
Frederick and Catherine only put through modest reforms
They were driven more by the necessities of the state than the
ideas of the philosophes
While the reforms were limited, they did make some positive
changes
Were successful at building a stronger state




Amassed large armies to wage wars and gain more power
Did reform the legal system reflecting some enlightened ideas
Promoted religious toleration to some extent
Expanded education
Poland before the Partition Treaties
Partitions of Poland

Poland



At this time was the Commonwealth of Poland-Lithuania
Became a victim because it did not have a strong monarchy
Polish king was severely limited in his power





He was elected by Polish nobles
He had severe restrictions on his power
Had little revenue, a small government, and was not allowed to
keep a standing army of more than 20,000
Prevented the Polish monarch from becoming absolute
At the same time left the country open to attack
Partitions of Poland

Eyeing Poland



Austria, Prussia, and Russia were all interested in the territory
held by Poland
Poland would come to be used as a negotiating point between
the three to prevent warfare
Treaty of the Three Black Eagles (1730)



Signed by Austria, Prussia, and Russia
Written in response to the death of Augustus II of Poland
The three countries wanted to make sure that the next Polish
king was friendly to their interests
Partitions of Poland

First Partition of Poland (1772)








Organized after Russia became a threat to Austria
A reorganization of borders was used to keep the peace
Poland became a negotiation point
Prussia got most of Poland between Brandenburg and Prussia
Austria expanded into southern Poland taking Galicia
Russia received parts of Livonia and Belarus
With this, Poland lost 30% of its territory, 33% of its
population, and 80% of its foreign trade
King Stanisław August Poniatowski and the Polish Parliament
were forced to approve the treaty

First Partition Treaty (1772)
Partitions of Poland

Constitution of 1791





In May 1792, the big three invaded Poland



Issued by Poland on May 3, 1791
Designed to make the Polish king stronger
Europe’s first codified national constitution
The neighbors of Poland were not happy with this constitution
War in Defense of the Constitution (1792)
Poland was defeated and the Constitution nullified
Second Partition Treaty (1793)



This time only Prussia and Russia received territory
The total land mass of Poland was reduced even further
The population was now only 1/3 of the 1772 population

Second Partition Treaty (1793)
Partitions of Poland

Kościuszko Uprising (March 24-November 16, 1794)





Led by Tadeusz Kościuszko
Attempted to free Poland and Lithuania from Russian
dominance
Were successful at first
Could not stand up to the Russian army
Third Partition Treaty (1795)


The remaining territories of Poland were divided up between
Russia, Prussia, and Austria
This ended the Commonwealth of Poland-Lithuania

Third Partition of Poland (1795)
England in the 18th Century

England’s limited monarchy




Parliament was controlled by the aristocracy




Increasing Parliamentary control at the expense of the king
King’s ministers set policy and guided Parliament
Parliament would levy taxes, make laws, and indirectly influence
the king’s ministers
House of Lords had the peers of the realm
House of Commons had the landed gentry
Both shared similar interests but were plagued by rivalries
Monarchs were not powerless

They would play upon these rivalries and gain the support of
the aristocracy through the granting of titles, jobs, and land

Queen Anne

(1702-1714)
Queen Anne (1702-1714)

Mary II died in 1694



William continued to rule as sole monarch until his death in
1702
As they had no children, Anne was next in line for the throne
Queen Anne (1702-1714)





Increase in the influence of the ministers
This was done at the expense of the crown
Anne suffered from numerous illnesses, including gout and
possibly porphyria
Her reign witnessed further development of the two party
system
Anne was a supporter of the Tory Party
Queen Anne (1702-1714)

Tories





Strong supporters of the Anglican church and allowed for little
religious tolerance
Resisted getting involved in foreign wars on the continent
Concerned with the protection of the Atlantic trade routes
Most of its members came from the landed gentry
The Whigs




From the aristocracy and upper middle-class
Supported Parliament's right to determine the succession to
the throne
Wanted to stop the growing power of France at all cost
Religiously tolerant
Queen Anne (1702-1714)

Anne had her own succession issues


Act of Settlement (1701)



Out of 18 pregnancies, only four survived birth and only one
made it to infancy (he died at the age of 11)
If Anne did not have an heir to the throne upon her death, the
next in line would be the descendants of Electress Sophia of
Hanover
It stated that only Protestant descendants were allowed
the Act of Union (1707)

United the kingdoms of England and Scotland into Great
Britain
Queen Anne (1702-1714)

Anne died on August 1, 1714



The cause of death was erysipelas, a strep infection
By the time of her death, her body was so swollen due to gout
and the infection
Sophia of Hanover had died shortly before Anne


Her son, George,would be the next king of England
This was the end of the Stuart dynasty and the start of the
Hanover dynasty

George I

(1714-1727)
George I (1714-1727)

George I (1714-1727)



Rise of the Jacobites




Was 56 years old when he took the throne
He did not speak English
Many people were against George taking the throne
Tories wanted James II’s Catholic son, James Edward
Rebellions broke out in 1715 and 1719
George set up a ministry of mostly Whig members



Ministry ran the government
Robert Walpole became the first chief, or prime, minister in
1721
Set the stage for the modern cabinet system of Britain

George II

(1727-1760)
George II (1727-1760)

George II (1727-1760)



War of Jenkin’s Ear (1739-1748)



Also relied heavily on ministers during his reign
During his reign, Britain was pulled into numerous conflicts
This was a conflict with Spain in the New World
Was merged into the War of Austrian Succession in 1742
The “Forty-Five” (1745)





Another Jacobite rebellion
This was led by James Edwards’ son, Charles Edward
Successful at taking Scotland, which supported the Jacobites
British defeat when they attempted to invade England
Charles Edward fled to France

George III

(1760-1820)
George III (1760-1820)

George III (1760-1820)



Proclamation of 1763



He was 22 years old when he took the throne
Ascended to the throne during the Seven Years’ war
It limited the westward expansion of American settlers
Wanted to get the settlers to negotiate with the American
Indians rather than go to war
Paying for the defense of the colonies



One of the big concerns of his reign
Paid for with numerous taxes were levied on sugar, tea, and
stamps
Angered the colonists even further
George III (1760-1820)

Domestic policy




Best known for “losing America”



Wanted to strengthen the power of the monarchy in Britain
However, Enlightenment ideas were popular in Britain
Many called for major reforms, including universal male suffrage
War broke out in the colonies in 1776 when the United States
declared independence
The war did not end until 1783
Latter years of his reign were plagued with mental issues


Many speculate that George suffered from porphyria
He was treated with arsenic which made the condition worse
George III (1760-1820)

Health issues






First attack of the illness may have occurred as early as 1765
First major attack occurred in 1788
During this time he supposedly had a lengthy conversation with
a tree thinking it was the king of Prussia
He again suffered an attack in 1803
His health deteriorated significantly after 1810
In 1811, the Prince of Wales, future George IV, became regent
until his father’s death in 1820

Battle of Fontenoy (May 11, 1745)
Warfare in the 18th Century


While the philosophes denounced warfare, many rulers
saw it as a necessity
Major concern was keeping the “balance of power”



On many occasions, this was handled with diplomacy
However, countries learned to keep large armies just in case
Shifting of alliances



Maria Theresa was angry at losing territory at the end of the
War of Austrian Succession
She had lost valuable territory in Bavaria, Italy, and Silesia
Austria was desperate to regain Silesia so it was willing to look
to other countries for aid
Diplomatic Revolution of 1756

First Treaty of Versailles (May 1, 1756)


Britain saw Austria as weak



Did not think Austria was powerful enough to check France’s
power
Britain believed Prussia was able to and allied with Prussia
Russia did not like the growing power of Prussia


Austria negotiated a defensive alliance with France
It joined the alliance between France and Austria
All of this drastically changed the alliances of Europe


On one side there is France, Austria, and Russia
On the other is Britain and Prussia

Frederick the Great

Seven Years’ War
Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)


Unlike the previous wars, this one started in North
America
This war has a few names:




The French Indian War – U.S.
The Seven Years War – Britain, France, Canada
The War of British Conquest – Quebec and Ontario
It was actually two wars


One was fought overseas in India and North America between
Great Britain and France
The other was fought in central Europe between Prussia and
the coalition led by Austria
Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)


War began as a conflict between colonists
Population was a key factor behind this



Battle at Fort Duquesne (September 14, 1758)




Colonists moved into the French-controlled Ohio River valley
French built numerous forts to halt the influx of colonists
Troops were sent in by Virginian governor, Robert Dinwiddie
He had invested heavily in the Ohio Company
George Washington was in charge of the troops
Britain and France provoked this fight


Britain specifically wanted to end French trade
France wanted to keep the British colonies limited to the coast
Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)



France won most of battles from 1754 to 1756
Britain officially declared war on France until May 1756
William Pitt the Elder (1708-1778)





Leader of the House of Commons and Secretary of State
Took over the war effort in December 1756
Believed that the French colonial empire had to be destroyed if
the British colonial empire were to succeed
Sent 23,000 troops to America
Turn for the British



Finally got an alliance with the Iroquois in 1757 after a number
of victories
In 1760, the British took Montreal
France abandoned their control of Canada to Britain
Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)

Seven Years’ War began in Europe in 1756


Prussia did see some victories in the beginning



Prussia invaded Saxony
Mainly due to military superiority of the Prussian army
Lack of coordination on the part of the alliance did not hurt
Prussia either
By 1761 Prussia was in bad shape





Sweden and Spain joined the alliance
Frederick was running out of money
Austrians had taken Saxony and Silesia from Prussia
Russians took Prussian Pomerania
Great Britain threatened to withdraw its funding to Prussia
Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)

On January 5, 1762 Russian Empress Elizabeth died


Treaty of St. Petersburg (1762)




Her son, Peter III, took the throne
Peter withdrew Russian troops from the war
This meant that the conflict would end in a stalemate and the
peace process began
Seven Years’ War ended with two treaties
The Treaty of Hubertusburg (February 15, 1763)



Between Austria, Prussia, and Saxony
It brought everything back to status quo ante bellum
Silesia remained part of Prussia
Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)

Treaty of Paris (February 10, 1763)






Between Great Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal
Britain got Canada and territory east of the Mississippi
Spain got territory west of the Mississippi and New Orleans
Spain ceded Florida to Britain in return for Cuba and the
Philippines
Britain also extended its control over India from the French
Impact:



Britain became the dominant power overseas
Prussia was recognized as one of the preeminent powers in
Europe
France began to decline in power both in Europe and overseas