Transcript The Arms Race

Casus Belli
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1871
Alliance system
Nationalism
Arms Race
Sarajevo
“The lights are going out”
1871
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The world was a much better place in 1871
Capitalism had created abundant affluence
La belle époque (the golden age)
International law ensured everyone had rights
and they were respected by others
• But there was a serious gap between reality and
theory –the Great Powers dominated
- Britain, Germany, Austria, Russia, Italy,
France
• They were spokesmen for the Concert of Europe
• Peace and stability was based on the balance of
power
• An attack against one was an attack against all
• Liberal ideals were being replaced by more
conservative thoughts
• Western Europe was considered solidified
national units
• The unification of Germany had involved 3 wars
and humiliated France
• France lost the Franco-Prussian war and also
Alsace and Lorraine
• Alsace had been part of the HRE but had been
French for over 200 years
• Lorraine was wholly French in population
• The Germans hoped the French would accept
the loss – wrong!
• A modern Europe required a German state, but
which lands would that involve?
• Nowhere did political frontiers match lines of
nationality
• Gladstone supported every countries’ claim to
independence
• Yet eastern Europe was a quilt of countries
wanting independence
• Rumania had been created in 1871 and had
been ruled by the Turks, Germans, and
Austrians
• Poland was a bigger issue because it lay in the
borders of 3 other countries – Prussia, Austria,
and Russia
• Bismarck had supported Russia repression of
the Poles in exchange for Russian neutrality in
the Franco-Prussian War 1870
• There where 4 great empires in eastern
Europe:
Germany, Russia, Austria, Turkey (Ottoman)
• There were also 4 independent countries:
Serbia, Montenegro, Rumania, Greece
• They all shared 2 traits:
a) hatred of the Turks
b) the ability to be friends with Great
Powers
Austria
• Austria had an empire but it wasn’t a nation – it was
entirely comprised of minorities
• 1860 Austria was defeated by the French
• 1866 Austria was defeated by the Germans
• By 1867 Austria was neither a German nor Italian
power but it had millions of both
• In 1867 Austria-Hungary was created – 2 countries – 1
ruler, hence the Dual Monarchy
• Hungary was ruled by the Magyars, very pro-German
and anti-Slav and anti-Russian
• Nobody could afford a war
• There would be no winner
• The growth of pacifism -war was a thing of the
past - we were civilized.
• Europe had seen almost 100 years of peace
(1871 minor war)
• It would be the localized Third Balkan War that
would become World War I
• Business prevented any island from being
isolated
• Foreign investment was so large
• Better communication, cheap newspapers
• Better educated people
• Even victory would be expensive
Ivan Bloch - The Future of War
Norman Angell The Great Illusion (1910)
won the Nobel Prize
• The problem was that there was no means
for negotiating peace
European countries controlled the world
Germany - won the Franco-Prussian war,
gained Alsace and Lorraine, wanted to
isolate France, economic stability, led by
the Iron Chancellor Bismarck, little
interest in colonialism, unified.
France - lost Alsace and Lorraine, weak
military, imperialistic in Asia and Africa.
Great Britain - “splendid isolation”, colonial
conflicts with France and Russia
Austria - wanted to limit Slavic nationalism on southern
border and hostile nationalism within the borders
Russia - very imperialistic throughout the century – but
overland: in the Balkans; disputes with Austria over
Slavs; Ottomans; Japanese
Italy - interest in North Africa led to disputes with France.
The Balkans - a politically unstable region comprised of
many ethnic groups. Mostly Christian.
United States - not involved in global affairs
Alliances
The Russo-Turkish War 1877-8
• Bulgaria revolted against Ottoman Empire
(Turks) “sick man of Europe”
• Turks slaughter thousands of Slavs
• Serbia and Montenegro declared war on
Ottomans
• Russia declares herself protector of the Slavs
• Treaty of San Stefano
Treaty of San Stefano
• Increased Russian power in the Balkans and
threatened the Austrians
• At the Congress of Berlin (1878)
Bismarck(Honest Broker) created:
1 Independence for: Serbia, Montenegro, and
Romania
2 Austria received the right to administer Bosnia
and Herzegovina
3 Russia gained control of Bulgaria
(windows to the west) and some regions of
Turkey
The Driekaiserbund
• 1879 Germany and Austria signed the Dual
Alliance - which remained in place for almost 40
years
• The Three Emperors’ League created by
Bismarck to keep Austria and Russia at peace
• Germany - Kaiser William
• Austria - Emperor Francis Joseph
• Russia - Tsar Alexander
• 1881 Driekaiserbund was revived:
a) Acknowledged Russia had interest in
Bulgaria
b) Austria had interest in BosniaHerzegovenia
c) promised neutrality if anyone was attacked
by a fourth power
• 1881 France makes Tunisia a protectorate
• Italy seeks allies
• 1882 Triple Alliance - Germany, Austria, Italy
a) both would help Italy if Italy attacked by
France
b) Italy would help Germany if France attacked
c) the treaty did not apply to Britain
• Germany has treaties with Austria, Italy,
Russia, and on good terms with Great Britain
• 1883 Austria and Rumania (later Germany added)
• 1887 Driekaiserbund not renewed because of
problems between Austria and Russia
• 1887 Germany -Russia sign Reinsurance Treaty
a) extremely secretive
b) in the event of war both would stay neutral
except: if Austria is attacked by Russia or France is
attacked by Germany
c) Germany promised to promote Russian goals in
the Balkans
Reinsurance Treaty (1887)
• Russia dissolved Three Emperors’ Treaty
because of tensions in the Balkans
• Signs new treaty with Germany - both stay
neutral unless: Germany attacks France or
Russia attacks Austria
• 1890 Bismarck is dismissed
• France signs a military alliance with Russia –
aimed at Britain in the Med.
• 1896 Kaiser William sent a telegram to Transvaal
President Kruger offering support
• Germany also starts to increase naval power
• The Fashoda Crisis forced France to reevaluate their
foreign policy
• 1902 Britain signs the Anglo-Japanese Alliance
• 1904 Anglo-French Entente
Britain recognizes French claims to Morocco
France recognizes British claims to Egypt
• 1900 German prestige had deteriorated drastically
• “Weltmacht” (world power) Germany wanted to be an
equal of Britain and France
Nationalism
• 1900 there were 25 sovereign states in Europe none would admit to a higher authority
• Alliances created states less willing to compromise
• There was a huge build up in armament after the
Franco-Prussian War
• Each nation should have its own state
• France wanted Alsace-Lorraine returned
• Italy wanted Austrian land
• Patriotic literature motivated people “my country,
right or wrong”
Moroccan Crisis
• The French wanted to establish a
protectorate over Morocco and gained the
support of other European countries
• The Germans defended the rights of the
Moroccans
• January 1905 German Chancellor Bulow
told Morocco of German support
• The Dreyfus affair had wrecked France
France’s ally Russia was busy with Japan
France was in no position to negotiate
• Jan 16 Algeciras Conference - Germany
optimistic
a) Britain was France’s only ally
b) Italy, Austria-Hungary, US supported
Germany
c) Believed Spain would switch sides
• German inept diplomacy alienated everyone
• Germany was now isolated
• Prime Minister of Britain Lord Grey
discussed with France and Belgium the
possibility of war
• 1905 - Russia defeated by Japan
and loses credibility
• 1905 Failed revolution in Russia
causes countrywide instability
• The Treaty of Berlin had given Austria the
right to administer Bosnia-Herzegovina
• In 1908 Austria annexed Bosnia and
Herzegovina - Serbia could do nothing
without Russian help
• Russia and Austria made a deal for mutual
prestige
• Russia acknowledges Austria’s right to Bosnia
• Austria agreed with Russian control of the
Dardanelles
• Austria took control of Bosnia
• Russian control of the Dardanelles was
rejected
• Serbia threatened to invade Bosnia to liberate
the Serbs
• Austria-Hungary threatened to destroy Serbia
• Germany supported Austrian claims to Bosnia
• Russia supported Serbia
1. 1911 Tripolitan War - Italy takes Libya
from Turkey
2. France sent an occupation force to Fez
(Morocco) in May 1911, and Germany
concluded it would not permit any revision
of the Algeciras Act without some
compensation. In July, under the pretext of
protecting Germans a gunboat (Panther)
was sent to Agadir (MORACCO) to make
the French back down.
First Balkan War 1912-13
• Italy defeated Turks in Tripoli North Africa
• Was a war of saving face to show they
could beat someone.
• This encouraged Balkan states to rebel
against the weak Turks. Russia, Bulgaria,
Serbia, Montenegro and Greece fought
against the Turks. Treaty of London 1913
Ottomans lost all lands in Europe
Second Balkan War 1913
• Serbia, Montenegro, Greece and Rumania
joined Turkey to defeat Bulgaria
• Treaty of Bucharest 1913 forced Bulgaria to
give territory to Rumania, while Serbia
gained most of Macedonia.
• Russians now feel the need to help Serbia to
save their image.
The Arms Race
• By 1908 the German army was getting the most
money
• By 1914:
a) Germany had the second largest navy - behind
Britain
b) Had pushed Britain closer to France and Russia
c) Had wasted considerable money because the
fleet was bottled up for most of the war
d) If those resources had gone to the army
Germany would have won the war
• William II was a proponent of the arms race
• 1890 German army was 20,000
1913 German army was 800,000
• William was envious of the British
• A navy would:
a) protect trade routes
b) express greatness
c) protect colonies
• Naval strength: Britain; France; America; Italy;
Germany
• 1896 Alfred Tirpitz appointed Minister of Marine
(Fisher was his British counterpart)
• March 1898 - Naval Construction Act
called for:
11 battleships
5 heavy cruisers
17 small cruisers by 1905
• Tirpitz claimed a navy would make Germany great
- (Bismarck had said it would drive Britain to
France)
• Dec 1899 Hihenlohe called for a “Risk Fleet” - so no
power could pose a risk
• June 1900 a new naval bill:
a) called 38 battleships in 20 years
b) regardless of cost
c) Reichstag to have no control over spending
• 1905 Britain started the H.M.S. Dreadnought
• 1906 German starts her own Dreadnought, with
demands for 6 before 1918, but their model was
susceptible to explosions
• Britain was forced into the Naval Panic of 1909
• But Germany couldn’t afford the largest navy and
largest army
Sarajevo
• Archduke Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian
throne visit Bosnia on Serbian Independence
Day
• He and his wife are assassinated in Bosnia by
Gavrilo Princip
• Princip was a member of The Union or Death
(Black Hand)
• This was the spark that ignited the Balkan
“powder keg”
• His death was the excuse for Austria to move
against Serbia
• July 6 1914 Germany promised to help Austria
in the event of war - the “blank check”
• Austria demanded Serbia met their demands
i) condemn anti-Austrian propaganda
ii) suppress all anti-Austrian publications
iii) eliminate critical teachers and books
iv) allow Austria control the investigation
v) Serbian officers suspected were to be arrested
• July 22 Austrian ultimatum sent with
German approval and demanded a reply in
48 hours
• Serbia agreed to all demands except those
over sovereignty
• Serbia suggested arbitration
• Austria refused and:
a) severed diplomatic relations
b) ordered partial mobilization
c) euphoria swept across Vienna
• Russia was determined to support Serbia
• Russia considered war inevitable
• July 26, issued secret orders for a “period
preparatory to war”
• July 27 Russia notified Austria if they crossed
the Serbian border the Russian army would
mobilize
• July 28 Austria issued a declaration of war to
avoid more discussion
• July 29 Austrian artillery bombards Serbia
• July 29 Russia declares war against the Dual
Monarchy
“The lights . . .”
• France approved of Russian policy
• Russia asked Britain to mediate
• Britain suggested Austrian occupy part of
Serbia
• Germany agreed to the Pledge Plan
• July 30 Germany gave the plan to Austria
• Germany planned a meeting for July 31
• July 31 Austria mobilized against Russia
• British Foreign Secretary Grey “The lamps are
going out all over Europe, we shall never see
them lit again in our lifetime”
The Outbreak of War
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Austria hoped for a limited war
Austria declared war on Serbia
German “Blank Check” and urged aggression
British followed isolationist ideals until the
violation of Belgium
• élan vitale (strength of the people)
• Revanche (revenge for 1870)
• Most Europeans believed it would be a short
and decisive war
• Germany, committed to fighting Russia in 1914,
urged Austria to invade Serbia
• Germany was sure they could defeat France
and Britain would then stay neutral
• Germany declared war on Russia and then two
days later France
• Schlieffen Plan - indicated the Germans anticipated
a war on two fronts
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August 4 1914 Germany invaded Belgium
France was utterly defeated, but Britain joined the war
Russia mobilized faster than expected
Moltke moved men from the west to the east
Germans reached the Marne River, 40 miles from Paris
War in the East
• Russians invaded East Prussia defeated
at Tannenberg
• Austria failing against Serbia and Russia
• Germany aided Austria and turned the
fight
• BUT, Germany was fighting on two
fronts
• November 1917, revolution in Russia
forced them to seek peace
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
• Forced by the liberals in Russia
• Bolsheviks gain power
• Russia loses:
Poland, Ukraine, Finland, Baltic Provinces 34% of Russia’s population
89% coal mines
32% farmland
54% industry
The United States
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America was sympathetic to the Allies
Anti-German feelings
U-Boats
President Wilson
Lusitania
Resumption of unrestricted submarine
warfare
Kaiserschlacht
• German’s last offensive before the US joins
the war
• Major gains to break the deadlock
• Battle of Belleau Woods the Allies stopped the
Germans
• Armistice Day - November 11, 1918
The Legacy of War
• July 16, 1918 the Czar and his family are massacred by
Bolsheviks
• September 30, Bulgaria accepts armistice – King
Ferdinand abdicated in favor of his son
• London – over 2,000 people were dying every week from
flu
• October – Czechoslovakia proclaimed itself a republic
• Hungary announced independence of Austria on the
same day
• October 30, Turkey makes a separate peace, but a
settlement would come later (Peace of Sèvres, 1920)
• November 3, Austria signs an armistice and becomes a
republic when Emperor Karl resigns
• Hungary announced independence of Austria on the
same day
• November 11, fighting is stopped
• Britain, France, and Russia had promised Greece large
parts of Turkey
• 1919 Greece took Ismir and started Turkish resistance
• Britain had promised Constantinople to the Russians –
but not the Bolsheviks
• Britain and France had secretly decided to divide the
Middle East between themselves
(Sykes-Picot Treaty)
Iraq and Palestine being British
Syria being French
• The British had told the Russians the secret before the
Revolution. Now the Bolsheviks told the world
• Italy became furious – Britain offered Italy parts of
Turkey including Ismir
• Civil war broke out in Italy – settled in 1922 by
Mussolini
• In 1914 Egypt had been made a British protectorate and
expected independence in 1918 but didn’t get it until
1922
• Palestine was made British Mandate with the aim of
creating a Jewish homeland - Uganda Iraq became a
British Mandate (Arabic =domination)
• Syria became a French Mandate
Russian Revolution
National Collapse
• The revolution of 1905 changed little in
Russia- the tsar still controlled the army
and the aristocracy controlled the govt.
with the tsar having veto power
• For Russia World War I was devastating
• 1915, Tsar Nicholas II took command of
the army his (German) wife controlled the
government
• In 1915 there were two million Russians
casualties
• Grigori Rasputin - a Siberian mystic who
indulged in sexual orgies- became more
influential
• The tsarina believed Rasputin was a holy man
who could save her fifth child her son Alexis
• Rasputin did, probably through hypnotism
• Rasputin controlled who could see the queen
• 1916 - Rasputin was assassinated by 3 members of the
aristocracy but it was too late to save the monarchy
• “If I die or you desert me, in six months you will lose
your son and your throne”
• Food shortages worsened and morale declined
• The government raised the price of bread and people
waited up to 12 hours for bread
• March 8 the women of Petrograd marched for food
• The tsar, from the front ordered the soldiers to
open fire
• March 12, 1917 the Duma declared a
Provisional Government
• March 15 the tsar abdicated
• The March Revolution had been caused by
hunger
• The Provisional Govt established:
a) equality before the law
b) freedom of religion
c) freedom of speech
d) freedom of assembly
e) the right to form unions and strike
The Provisional Government
• The leader Alexander Kerensky refused to
distribute confiscated lands and he saw the war
as a national duty
• Soviets formed in Petrograd (Paris Commune
1792)
• The Provisional Govt had to share power with
the Petrograd Soviet (Soviet of Workers’ and
Soldiers Deputies) which represented radical
interests
• Petrograd Soviet issued Army Order No. 1
replace all army officers
LENIN
• Lenin was a lawyer who became an enemy of the
tsar
• In 1887 his brother was executed for plotting to kill
the tsar
• Lenin:
a) used the Communist manifesto for inspiration
b) under certain conditions a socialist revolution was
possible even in a backward country like Russia
c) needed a highly disciplined workers’ party
• Lenin’s ideas were challenged by Russian Marxists
which then split into two groups
• Bolsheviks (majority) were led by Vladimir Ulianov
(Lenin)
• Mensheviks (minority)
• Lenin’s majority didn’t last but he still kept the name
• Lenin had been observing
Russia from Switzerland and
he saw the March Revolution
as a positive step
• The German’s gave Lenin, his wife, and about 20
followers safe passage to Russia
• In his “April Theses” Lenin said Russia could move
directly towards socialism
• The Bolsheviks promised to end the war; redistribute
land to the peasants; transfer ownership of factories to
the workers; move government from the Provisional
Government to the soviets
• April 3, arriving at Finland Station, Petrograd he
proclaimed “Peace, Land, Bread” “All land to the
peasants” “Stop the war now”
• In July an attempted coup failed an Lenin was
forced to flee
• He was charged with helping the Germans and
accepting money from the Germans
• Kerensky became prime minister in July and his
commander in chief was the war hero General
Kornilov (heart of a lion the brains of a sheep)
• Kornilov launched a feeble attack against the
Provisional Govt. and was discredited even by the
army
• In October the Bolsheviks gained a fragile
majority in the Petrograd Soviet (Council)
• Lenin found a strong right-arm in Trotsky
• Trotsky brilliantly organized the take over
of power by the Bolsheviks
• Trotsky took power in the name of the
more acceptable democratic soviets not the
Petrograd Soviet
• Trotsky gradually seized all power from
the Provisional Govt.
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In October Lenin ordered his troops to plan a revolution
Council of People’s Commissars
Lenin - chairman
Trotsky - foreign
affairs
Stalin - commissar of nationalities
Sought to destroy Russian Orthodox Church
Seized church property
Replaced Julian calendar with Gregorian
Simplified the alphabet
Secret police - Cheka
Russia becoming a dictatorship
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk got Russia out of the war in
1918.
Civil War
• There was great opposition to Lenin from
those loyal to the tsar; anti-Leninists; and
Mensheviks
• Bolsheviks (Reds) called themselves
Communists
• The Whites had no common goal and
remained unorganized but
supported by Western allies
• War Communism - nationalization
to ensure supplies
• By 1921 the new system was not working.
Farm and industrial production remained a
fraction of prewar levels
• Kronstadt Naval Base mutinied against
Leninist policies, but was violently suppressed.
• Lenin realised that war communism did not
work, he would need to change economic
direction
• Seeing the need for change Lenin introduced
the New Economic Policy (NEP)
• NEP gave the state ownership of large
companies but did allow some private
ownership
• 1918 Russian Soviet Federated Socialist
Republic - RSFSR
• 1924 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics USSR
• 1924 Lenin died after a stroke
• Trotsky’s Doctrine of Permanent Revolution
bourgeois--proletarian--world
• Stalin’s Doctrine of Socialism in One Country
did not need world socialism
• Stalin gains control
• Trotsky flees to Mexico - murdered with an axe in 1940
by Stalinist supporters
• The Great Purge
• The Five Year Plan
Revolutions
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• FRANCE:
a) leading country of the
time
b) strength in middle
class
c) happened fast
d) ordinary people
became leaders
e) opposition returned
f) monarchy restored
g) by 1990 ideas widely
accepted
RUSSIA:
a) most backward country
b) strength lay in lower
classes
c) took over 50 years to evolve
d) paid revolutionary leaders
e) wiped out all opposition
f) no monarchy
g) by 1990 the ideas were
rejected
Revolutions
• Both originated in deep-lying and distant causes
• Both were movements of liberation:
France - against feudalism and despotism
Russia - against capitalism and imperialism
• Both sent a message all over the world
• Attracted followers in many countries
• Both aroused a strong reaction
• Shared same revolutionary politics
• Both overthrow an old regime and then the
leaders were overthrown by a determined
minority
France - Jacobins in 1793
Russia - Bolsheviks in 1918
• Many of the original leaders were later
killed
Versailles Treaty
• Initially all agreed but later Europeans wanted to
punish Germany
• Russia was not invited
• Controlled by Britain, France, Italy, US
• Clemenceau most concerned with future French future
• France received the coal mines of the Saar for 15 years
• Allied troops would occupy Germany for 15 years
• Germany had to renounce the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
• Germany lost her colonies
• Germany had to pay for the damage done
League of Nations
• President Wilson’s Fourteen point plan was
designed to create world peace
• League of Nations to prevent future wars France
regained Alsace-Lorraine
• U.S. refused to sign - Senate believed they would
lose the power to declare war
• For security:
a. France signed a defensive alliance with Poland
b. Wanted strict implementation of the Treaty if
the U.S. would not sign
The dictated peace only served to anger Germans
and encourage German hostility
Clause 231 – War guilt clause – blamed Germany
for the war