Transcript Perspective!

CHAPTER 24
T H E T R A N S FO R M AT I O N O F E U RO PE
Realism &
Expression
 Expulsion from
the Garden
 Masaccio
 1427
 First nudes since
classical times.
Perspective
The Trinity
Perspective!
Perspective!
Perspective!
Perspective!
Perspective!
Perspective!
Masaccio
1427
Perspective!
First use
of linear
perspective!
What you are,
I once was;
what I am,
you will
become.
Classicism
Greco-Roman
influence.
Secularism.
Humanism.
Individualism  free
standing figures.
Symmetry/Balance
The “Classical Pose”
Medici “Venus” (1st C.)
Emphasis on Individualism
 Batista Sforza & Federico de Montefeltre: The
Duke & Dutchess of Urbino
 Piero della Francesca, 1465-1466.
Geometrical Arrangement of Figures
 The Dreyfus
Madonna
with the
Pomegranate
 Leonardo da
Vinci
 1469
 The figure as
architecture!
The Liberation of
Sculpture
 David by Donatello
 1430
The Renaissance “Man”
• Broad knowledge about many things in
different fields.
• Deep knowledge/skill in one area.
• Able to link information from different
areas/disciplines and create new
knowledge.
• The Greek ideal of the “well-rounded
man” was at the heart of Renaissance
education.
Leonardo da Vinci, 1512
 Artist
 Sculptor
 Architect
 Scientist
 Engineer
 Inventor
1452 - 1519
Leonardo, the
Artist
 The Virgin of
the Rocks
 Leonardo da
Vinci
 1483-1486
Leonardo, the Artist: From his Notebooks of
over 5000 pages(1508 -1519)
Leonardo, the Scientist
(Anatomy): Pages from his Notebook
 David
 Michelangelo
Buonarotti
 1504
 Marble
The Popes as Patrons of the Arts
The Pieta
Michelangelo
Buonarroti
1499
marble
The Sistine
Chapel
Michelangelo
Buonarroti
1508 - 1512
The Sistine Chapel’s Ceiling
Michelangelo Buonarroti
1508 - 1512
The Sistine Chapel Details
The
Creation
of the
Heavens
The Sistine Chapel Details
Creation of Man
The Sistine Chapel Details
The Fall
from
Grace
The Sistine Chapel Details
The Last Judgment
Betrothal
of the
Virgin
Raphael
1504
Perspective!
Raphael’s Canagiani Madonna, 1507
Raphael’s Madonnas
Madonna della Sedia
Alba Madonna
Birth of Venus – Botticelli, 1485
An attempt to depict perfect beauty.
Venus of Urbino – Titian, 1558
Northern Artists
• Albrecht Durer
• Jan & Hubert Van Eyck
• Pieter Bruegel
• Peter Paul Rubens
Literary Achievements
• Dante – The Divine Comedy
• Cervantes – Don Quixote
• Shakespeare – English writer during the 1600’s, he
focused on the joys and sorrows of human life.
• Machiavelli – The Prince
The Printing Press
• With technology from China, Johann Gutenberg
created the printing press in Germany in 1456.
• Led to cheaper, more available books.
• Led to an increase in literacy.
• Growth of knowledge
o religious ideas
o Medicine, science & geography
R. H. Bainton
The Reformation of the 16c
Thus, the papacy emerged as something
between an Italian city-state and
European power, without forgetting at
the same time the claim to be the viceregent of Christ. The Pope often could
not make up his mind whether he was
the successor of Peter or of Caesar.
Such vacillation had much to do with the
rise and success of the Protestant
Reformation.
THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION
• Martin Luther (1483-1546) attacks Roman Catholic church
practices, 1517
• Indulgences: preferential pardons for charitable donors
• Writes Ninety-Five Theses, rapidly reproduced with new
printing technology
• Excommunicated by Pope Leo X in 1521
• 1520s-1530s dissent spread throughout Germany and
Switzerland
THE DEMAND FOR REFORM
• Luther’s expanded critique
• Closure of monasteries
• Translations of Bible into vernacular
• End of priestly authority, especially the Pope
• Return to biblical text for authority
• German princes interested
• Opportunities for assertion of local control
• Support for reform spreads throughout Germany
Caricature of Pope Alexander VI
by Martin Luther, 1545
The Spread of Lutheranism
The Peasant Revolt - 1525
REFORM OUTSIDE GERMANY
• Switzerland, Low Countries follow Germany
• England: King Henry VIII (r. 1509-1547) has conflict with
Pope over requested divorce
• England forms its own church by 1560
• France: John Calvin (1509-1564) codifies Protestant
teachings while in exile in Geneva
• Scotland, Netherlands, Hungary also experience reform
movements
PROTESTANT REFORMERS
JOHN CALVIN
• A French priest and lawyer,
who like Luther, believed that
Christians could only reach
heaven through faith in God.
• Unlike Luther, he promoted
predestination, the belief that
God had determined before
the beginning of time who
would achieve salvation.
• Wrote Institutes of the
Christian Religion, codifying
Protestant teachings.
Reformation
Europe
(Late 16c)
THE CATHOLIC REFORMATION
• Roman Catholic church reacts
• Refining doctrine, missionary activities to Protestants, attempt to
renew spiritual activity
• Council of Trent (1545-1563) periodic meetings to discuss
reform
• Called by Pope Paul III, the goal was to end church abuses and set
up schools to educate clergy
• Society of Jesus (Jesuits) founded by St. Ignatius Loyola
(1491-1556)
• Rigorous religious and secular education
• Effective missionaries
• spread Christianity to Asia, Africa and the Americas
WITCH HUNTS
• Most prominent in regions of tension between Catholics
and Protestants
• Late 15th century development in belief in Devil and
human assistants
• 16th-17th centuries approximately 110,000 people put on
trial, some 60,000 put to death
• Vast majority females, usually single, widowed
• Held accountable for crop failures, miscarriages, etc.
• New England: 234 witches tried, 36 hung
Burning of three witches in
Baden, Switzerland 1585
Witches by Hans Baldung
Grien, Woodcut, 1508
An image of suspected witches
being
hanged infor
England,
published
Punishments
witchcraft
in in
1655.
16th-century Germany.
1508.
RELIGIOUS WARS
• Protestants and Roman Catholics fight in France (15621598)
• 1588 Philip II of Spain attacks England to force return to
Catholicism
• English destroy Spanish ships by sending flaming unmanned ships
into the fleet
• Netherlands rebel against Spain, gain independence by
1610
Protestant
Churches
in
France
(Late 16c)
THE THIRTY YEARS’ WAR (1618-1645)
• Holy Roman emperor attempts to force Bohemians to
return to Roman Catholic Church
• All of Europe becomes involved in conflict
• Principal battleground: Germany
• Political, economic issues involved
• Approximately one-third of German population destroyed
1618-1648
Loss of German Lives in 30 Years’ War
THE CONSOLIDATION OF SOVEREIGN
STATES
• Emperor Charles V (r. 1519-1556) attempts to revive Holy
Roman Empire as strong center of Europe
• Through marriage, political alliances
• Ultimately fails
• Protestant Reformation provides cover for local princes to assert greater
independence
• Foreign opposition from France, Ottoman Empire
• Unlike China, India, Ottoman Empire, Europe does not develop as
single empire, rather individual states
• Charles V abdicates to monastery in Spain
Europe in 1559
THE NEW MONARCHS
• Italy well-developed as economic power through trade,
manufacturing, finance
• Yet England, France, and Spain surge ahead in 16th century,
innovative new tax revenues
• England: Henry VIII
• Fines and fees for royal services; confiscated monastic holdings
• France: Louis XI, Francis I
• New taxes on sales, salt trade
THE SPANISH INQUISITION
• Founded by Fernando and Isabel in 1478
• Original task: search for secret Christian practitioners of
Judaism or Islam, later search for Protestants
• Spread to Spanish holdings outside Iberian peninsula in western
hemisphere
• Imprisonment, executions
• Intimidated nobles who might have considered Protestantism
• Archbishop of Toledo imprisoned 1559-1576
CONSTITUTIONAL STATES
• England and Netherlands develop institutions of
popular representation
• England: constitutional monarchy
• Netherlands: republic
• English Civil War, 1642-1649
• Begins with opposition to royal taxes
• Religious elements: Anglican church favors complex ritual,
complex church hierarchy, opposed by Calvinist Puritans
• King Charles I and parliamentary armies clash
• King loses, is beheaded in 1649
THE GLORIOUS REVOLUTION (1688-1689)
•
•
•
•
Puritans take over, becomes a dictatorship
Monarchy restored in 1660, fighting resumes
Resolution with bloodless coup called Glorious Revolution
King James II deposed, daughter Mary and husband
William of Orange take throne
• Shared governance between crown and parliament
THE DUTCH REPUBLIC
• King Philip II of Spain attempts to suppress Calvinists in
Netherlands, 1566
• Large-scale rebellion follows, by 1581 Netherlands declares
independence
• Based on a representative parliamentary system
ABSOLUTE MONARCHIES
• Theory of Divine Right of Kings
• French absolutism designed by Cardinal Richelieu (under
King Louis XIII, 1624-1642)
• Destroyed castles of nobles, crushed aristocratic conspiracies
• Built bureaucracy to bolster royal power base
• Ruthlessly attacked Calvinists
LOUIS XIV (THE “SUN KING,” 1643-1715)
• L’état, c’est moi: “The State – that’s me.”
• Magnificent palace at Versailles, 1670s, becomes his court
• Largest building in Europe
• 1,400 fountains
• 25,000 fully grown trees transplanted
• Power centered in court, important nobles pressured to
maintain presence
ABSOLUTISM IN RUSSIA: THE
ROMANOV DYNASTY (1613-1917)
• Peter I (“the Great,” r. 1682-1725)
• Worked to modernize Russia on western European model
• Developed modern Russian army, reformed Russian
government bureaucracy, demanded changes in fashion:
beards forbidden
• Built new capital at St. Petersburg
• Catherine II (“the Great”, r. 1762-1796)
• Huge military expansion
• Partitions of Poland, 1772-1797
• Social reforms at first, but end with Pugachev peasant
rebellion (1773-1774)
THE EUROPEAN STATES SYSTEM
• No imperial authority to mediate regional disputes
• Peace of Westphalia (1648) after Thirty Years’ War
• European states to be recognized as sovereign and
equal
• Religious, other domestic affairs protected
• Warfare continues: opposition to French expansion,
Seven Years’ War
• Balance of Power tenuous
• Innovations in military technology proceed rapidly
Treaty of Westphalia (1648)
Europe after the Peace of Westphalia, 1648
POPULATION GROWTH AND
URBANIZATION
• Rapidly growing population due to Columbian Exchange
• Improved nutrition
• Role of the potato (considered an aphrodisiac in 16th and 17th centuries)
• Replaces bread as staple of diet
• Better nutrition reduces susceptibility to plague
• Epidemic disease becomes insignificant for overall population
decline by mid-17th century
POPULATION GROWTH IN EUROPE
180
160
140
120
100
Millions
80
60
40
20
0
1500
1700
1800
URBANIZATION
500000
450000
400000
350000
300000
Madrid
Paris
London
250000
200000
150000
100000
50000
0
1550
1600
1650
EARLY CAPITALISM
• Private parties offer goods and services on a free
market
• Own means of production
• Private initiative, not government control
• Supply and demand determines prices
• Banks, stock exchanges develop in early modern
period
• Joint-Stock Companies (English East India Company,
VOC)
• Relationship with empire-building
• Medieval guilds discarded in favor of “putting-out”
system
IMPACT OF CAPITALISM ON THE
SOCIAL ORDER
• Rural life
• Improved access to manufactured goods
• Increasing opportunities in urban centers begins depletion of the
rural population
• Inefficient institution of serfdom abandoned in western
Europe, retained in Russia until 19th century
• Nuclear families replace extended families
• Gender changes as women enter income-earning work
force
CAPITALISM AND MORALITY
• Adam Smith (1723-1790) argued that capitalism would
ultimately improve society as a whole
• But major social change increases poverty in some sectors
• Rise in crime
• Witch-hunting a possible consequence of capitalist tensions and
gender roles
THE COPERNICAN UNIVERSE
• Reconception of the Universe
• Reliance on 2nd-century Greek scholar Claudius Ptolemy of
Alexandria
• Motionless earth inside nine concentric spheres
• Christians understand heaven as last sphere
• Difficulty reconciling model with observed planetary
movement
• Heliocentric Theory
• 1543 Nicholas Copernicus of Poland breaks theory
• Notion of moving Earth challenges Christian doctrine
"Astronomer Copernicus: Conversation with God" painted
by Jan Matejko (1872)
THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
• Johannes Kepler (Germany, 1571-1630) and Galileo Galilei
(Italy, 1564-1642) reinforce Copernican model
• Isaac Newton (1642-1727) revolutionizes study of physics
• Rigorous challenge to church doctrines
'Galilo facing the Roman Inquisition'',
1857 painting by Cristiano Banti
Briefly stated, my three laws of motion
are:
• An object in motion will remain in
motion unless acted upon by a net
force.
• Force equals mass multiplied by
acceleration.
• To every action there is an equal and
opposite reaction.
Sir Isaac Newton at 46 in
Godfrey Kneller's 1689 portrait
THE ENLIGHTENMENT
• Trend away from Aristotelian philosophy and Church
doctrine in favor of rational thought and scientific
analysis
• John Locke (England, 1632-1704), Baron de
Montesquieu (France, 1689-1755) attempt to discover
natural laws of politics
• Center of Enlightenment: France, philosophes
• Voltaire (1694-1778), caustic attacks on Roman
Catholic church: écrasez l’infame, “erase the infamy”
• Deism increasingly popular
JOHN LOCKE
Believed that:
- All people possess
natural rights, which
include life, liberty and
property.
- People form
governments to protect
these rights.
- If a government does
not protect these rights,
people have the right to
overthrow it.
Went on to inspire: Thomas Jefferson’s writing of the D.O.I. & the French
revolutionaries!
THE THEORY OF PROGRESS
• Assumption that Enlightenment thought would ultimately
lead to human harmony, material wealth
• Decline in authority of traditional organized religion
Reason:
- the mental powers concerned with forming conclusions,
judgments, or inferences; sound judgment; good sense.
RENE DESCARTES
• Frenchman Rene Descartes challenged the idea that new
knowledge should be made to fit existing traditional ideas.
He believed that reason, rather than tradition, should be
the way to discover truth.
“I doubt, therefore I
think, therefore I
am”
Portrait of René Descartes by
Frans Hals (1648)
• Natural Laws:
• Laws that govern human behavior.
HOW DID WE GET TO THE
ENLIGHTENMENT?
Renaissance
Reason
The Enlightenment
Natural Laws
Scientific
Revolution
LEADING THINKERS OF THE
ENLIGHTENMENT
BARON DE MONTESQUIEU
• French thinker of the
1700’s who wrote that:
• Government should be
divided into 3 branches
• This separation would
prevent tyranny by
creating checks and
balances
VOLTAIRE (FRANCOIS-MARIE AROUET)
• French thinker of the 1700’s who
wrote satire of the French
monarchy, the nobility and the
Catholic Church.
• He was especially critical of
intolerance and attempts to
suppress personal freedoms.
• In defense of freedom of speech
he wrote “I may disapprove of
what you say, but I will defend to
the death your right to say it.”
• In his novel Candide, he took on
prejudice, bigotry and oppressive
government.
JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU
• French philosopher of the 1700’s
who:
• wrote The Social Contract
• Believed that people are naturally
good but are corrupted by the
evils of society
• In forming govt’s, people choose
to give up their own interests for
the common good.
• Believed that the majority should
always work for the common
good.
EFFECTS OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT
• People began to question the status quo.
• Government and church leaders started a campaign of
censorship
• Many were imprisoned, including Voltaire.
• Enlightenment thinkers books were banned and burned.
• Enlightenment ideas inspired a sense of individualism and
personal freedom
• Led to the growth of democracy and a sense of nationalism
• Helped contribute to an age of revolution.