Transcript Digestive System

Digestive
System
Audrey Simmons
The Digestive System
My Drawing of the Digestive
System
The Digestive System
Function of the Digestive
System
 The
organs of the
digestive system
function to carry
out digestion,
ingestion,
propulsion,
absorption, and
defecation.
The Digestive System
Alimentary organs and their
function

Mouth


Pharynx


Connects mouth with esophagus
Esophagus


Mechanical breakdown of food; begins
chemical digestion of carbohydrates
Peristalsis pushes food to stomach
Stomach

Secretes acid and enzymes. Mixes food with
secretions to begin enzymatic digestion of
proteins
The Digestive System
Alimentary organs and their
function

Small Intestine




Mixes food with bile and pancreatic juice. Final
enzymatic breakdown of food molecules; main
site of nutrient absorption
The Duodenum-25cm long, 5cm in diameter.
The shortest portion and most fixed point of the
small intestine.
The Jejunum- mobile. Greater diameter, thicker
wall, and more vascular than the ileum.
The Ileum-smaller than the jejunum, has more
lymph nodules than the jejunum and a higher
bacteria population.
The Digestive System
Alimentary organs and their
function

Large Intestine






Absorbs water and electrolytes to form feces
Cecum- a dilated, pouchlike structure
Appendix-no known digestive function, contains
lymphatic tissue (defense)
Colon-Recover water that has entered the
alimentary canal. Divided into 4 sections,
ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid.
Rectum-Regulates elimination of feces
Anal canal (anus)-eliminates feces from the
body
The Digestive System
Alimentary organs and their
function
 Sphincters



Internal & external sphincter musclesinvoluntary and voluntary muscles guarding
the anus
Ileocecal sphincter-joins the small intestine’s
ileum to the large intestine’s cecum.
Normally remains constricted.
Pyloric sphincter-muscle that acts as a
valve in the stomach to control gastric
emptying.
The Digestive System
Accessory glands and their
function

Salivary glands


Liver


Produces bile, which emulsifies fat
Gallbladder


Secrete saliva, which contains enzymes that
initiate breakdown of carbohydrates
Stores bile and introduces it into small intestine
Pancreas

Produces and secretes pancreatic juice,
containing digestive enzymes and bicarbonate
ions, into small intestine
The Digestive System
Types of Digestion
 Digestion

The breaking down of food
 Physical

Breaks down large pieces into smaller ones
without altering their chemical composition
 Chemical

Breaks food down into simpler chemicals
The Digestive System
Digestion of the specifics

Carbohydrate

Begins in the mouth


Small intestine


The enzyme salivary amylase starts breaking down the
sugars
Pancreatic amylase breaks Carbs down further into
disaccharides
Protein

Stomach


Pepsin is secreted and activated by hydrogen ions and
hydrolyze proteins into peptides
Small intestine

Carboxypeptidase and chymotrypsin further break
protein into simple peptides and amino acids
The Digestive System
Digestion of the specifics

Lipids

Mouth


Lingual lipase starts to slightly break apart the
lipids
Stomach
Gastric lipase produced to further break down
 Churning of the stomach also helps


Small intestine

Pancreatic lipase breaks lipids down into
monoglycerides and fatty acids
The Digestive System
Crohn’s disease


Chronic inflammatory condition of the gastrointestinal tract
Symptoms






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Prevalence



Persistent Diarrhea
Rectal bleeding
Urgent need to move bowels
Abdominal cramps and pain
Sensation of incomplete defecation
Constipation
May affect 700,000 Americans
More prevalent among ages 15-35
Treatment



Medication that suppresses inflammation
Good diet and nutrition
Surgery: removal of the diseased bowel
The Digestive System
Gastroesophageal reflux
disease


When the contents of the stomach leak back into the
esophagus
Symptoms




Prevalence



Irritate/damage the esophagus
Heartburn
Nausea
Very common
Affects 10-20 million in the U.S.
Treatment



Antacids
Proton pump inhibitors-decrease acid produced in stomach
H2 blockers-decreased acid released in stomach
The Digestive System
Works cited
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http://www.wisconline.com/objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=AP15806
http://www.physiologymodels.info/digestion/proteins.htm
http://instruct.westvalley.edu/granieri/bio45lipid2.pdf
http://www.ccfa.org/what-are-crohns-and-colitis/what-iscrohns-disease/
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001311/
http://www.sts.org/patient-information/esophagealsurgery/gastroesophageal-reflux-disease
Butler, Jackie, and Ricki Lewis. "Digestive System." Hole's
Human Anatomy & Physiology. By David Shier. 11th ed.
New York: McGraw-Hill, 2007. N. pag. Print.
Campbell, Neil A., and Jane B. Reece. Biology. San
Francisco: Benjamin Cummings, 2002. Print.
The Endocrine
System
The Endocrine System
Function of the Endocrine
system
 Named
because the cells, tissues, and
organs that comprise it (the endocrine
glands) secrete hormones into the internal
environment of the body
The Endocrine System
Homeostasis
 The
body’s maintenance of a stable
internal environment
 Homeostasis in the endocrine system is a
stable amount of hormones in the body at
all times
The Endocrine System
Negative Feedback
A
negative feedback is when a response
is reduced and eventually stops
 The hypothalamus controls the anterior
pituitary gland’s release of tropic
hormones (hormones that make other
glands secrete hormones.) The
hypothalamus constantly receives info on
the homeostasis and employs negative
feedback when levels of a certain
hormone is too high
The Endocrine System
My drawing of the endocrine
system
The Endocrine System
The Glands and Their
Hormones

Hypothalamus


Pituitary gland


Growth hormone-stimulates
growth and metabolic
functions
Thyroid gland


Hormones released from the
posterior pituitary and
hormones that regulate the
anterior pituitary
Calcitonin-lowers blood
calcium level
Parathyroid gland

Parathyroid hormone-raises
blood calcium level
The Endocrine System
The Gland and Their Hormones

Pancreas


Adrenal glands


Epinephrine-raises blood glucose level
Gonads


Glucagon-raises blood glucose level
Androgens-support sperm formation; promote
development & maintenance of male
secondary sex characteristics
Pineal gland

Melatonin-involved in biological rhythms
The Endocrine System
Insulin
 Beta
cells in the pancreas produce insulin
when there is too much glucose in the
blood
 Insulin leaves the pancreas via exocytosis
 Insulin takes glucose to body cells for fuel
in cellular respiration
The Endocrine System
Diabetes

Type I


Type II


Thirst, frequent urination, lethargy,
vision changes, sugar in urine, fruity
breath
Prevalence


The body doesn’t use the insulin
efficiently
Signs & symptoms


Pancreas produces little or no insulin
1-450 develop type I, increased type
II in kids
Treatment

Insulin injections, balanced diet,
exercise
The Endocrine System
Addison’s disease

Deficiency of the adrenal gland hormones,
cortisol or aldosterone
Symptoms

Fatigue, muscle weakness, loss of appetite,
freckling, nausea, etc.
Prevalence


1-100,000 have it, rare
 JFK had it


Treatment

Avoid stress, replace hormone, avoid infection
The Endocrine System
Works Cited
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http://jdrf.org/life-with-t1d/frequently-asked-questions/#types
http://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/understandingaddisons-disease
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/endoc
rorgs.gif
http://gimnasio-altair.com/tps/wpcontent/uploads/2012/08/24hendocrineglad.jpg
http://www.medicalook.com/diseases_images/diabetes1.jpg
http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Kennedy_Addisons.jpg
Butler, Jackie, and Ricki Lewis. "Digestive System." Hole's
Human Anatomy & Physiology. By David Shier. 11th ed. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 2007. N. pag. Print.
Campbell, Neil A., and Jane B. Reece. Biology. San Francisco:
Benjamin Cummings, 2002. Print.
Excretory
system
The Excretory System
Excretory system

Function



The systems that excrete wastes from the body.
The system of organs that regulates the
amount of water in the body and filters and elim
inates from the blood the wastes produced by
metabolism.
Organs

The principal organs of the excretory system are
the kidneys, ureters, urethra, and urinary
bladder.
The Excretory System
Organs and their function

Kidneys


Ureters


Muscular ducts or tubes conveying the urine from the
kidneys to the bladder or cloaca.
Bladder


A pair of bean-shaped organs in the back part of the
abdominal cavity that form and excrete urine, regulate
fluid and electrolyte balance, and act as endocrine
glands.
A distensible membranous sac in which the urine excrete
d from the kidneys is stored.
Urethra

The membranous tube that extends from the urinary bla
dder to the exterior and conveys urine.
The Excretory System
The kidney
The Excretory System
Nitrogenous Wastes
 Ammonia

Very soluble but can only
be tolerated at small
amounts
 Animals
that excrete
ammonia need access to a
lot of water

Fish excrete ammonia
 Ammonia
molecules diffuse
into the surrounding water
 Most of the ammonia is lost
as ammonium ions
The Excretory System
Nitrogenous Wastes
 Urea



Relativity nontoxic substance produced in
the vertebrate liver by a metabolic cycle
that combines ammonia with carbon
dioxide.
Mammals, most adult amphibians, sharks,
and some fish and turtles mainly excrete
urea.
The circulatory system carries it to the urea
to the excretory systems’ organ the kidneys.
The Excretory System
Nitrogenous Wastes
 Uric



acid
Relativity nontoxic but is largely insoluble in
water and can be excreted as a semisolid
waste.
Perfect for animals that have little access to
water
Insects, land snails, many reptiles, including
birds excretes uric acid
The Excretory System
Close up of a part of a kidney
The Excretory System
Structures of the nephron

Renal cortex


Renal medulla


Passes into the renal medulla. Empties into a minor calyx
in renal papilla.
Juxtamedullary nephron


The inner part of the kidney
Collecting duct


The outer part of the kidney
Have corpuscles close to renal medulla. Important in
regulating water balance.
Cortical nephron

Have short nephron groups that don’t reach the real
medulla
The Excretory System
Nephron processes
 Filtration

The excretory tubule collects a filtrate from
the blood. Water and solutes are forced by
blood pressure across the selectively
permeable membranes of a cluster of
capillaries and into the excretory tubule.
 Reabsorption

The transport epithelium reclaims valuable
substances from the filtrate and returns
them to the body fluids.
The Excretory System
Nephron Processes
 Secretion

Other substances, such as toxins and excess
ions, are extracted from body fluids and
added to the contents of the excretory
tube
 Excretion

The filtrate leaves the systems and the
body.
The Excretory System
Interstitial Neprhitis


Inflammation of the spaces between the tubules of the
kidneys. When these spaces become inflamed, the kidneys
cannot function effectively and waste is improperly filtered.
Symptoms


Prevalence


decreased urine output, fever, drowsiness, confusion, nausea,
vomiting, rash, generalized body swelling and weight gain
Short-term, common disorder. Can cause permanent damage if
a chronic case.
Treatment


corticosteroids and anti-inflammatory medications to decrease
swelling quickly.
Patients should follow a salt- and fluid-restricted diet as well.
The Excretory System
Cystitis (urinary tract infection)


Inflammation of the bladder most often caused by a
bacterial infection that enters the body through the
urethra and travels upward into the bladder.
Symptoms


Prevalence


Strong urge to urinate, burning during urination, blood in
the urine, urine with a strong odor, discomfort and
pressure in the abdomen and pelvis and a low fever.
Very common, more common in females.
Treatment

Antibiotics that patients either take orally or receive as
injections directly into the bladder.
The Excretory System
Works cited
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http://www.marietta.edu/~mcshaffd/aquatic/sextant/os
mwaste.gif
https://encryptedtbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcThLcIBbYEDVz6
aUkaHbGhHLxqH5NNcHN8xbzKwZfSEwQ7iAN9Q
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/excretory+syste
m?s=t
http://www.livestrong.com/article/191406-disorders-inthe-excretory-system/
Butler, Jackie, and Ricki Lewis. "Digestive System." Hole's
Human Anatomy & Physiology. By David Shier. 11th ed.
New York: McGraw-Hill, 2007. N. pag. Print.
Campbell, Neil A., and Jane B. Reece. Biology. San
Francisco: Benjamin Cummings, 2002. Print.
Immune
System
The Immune System
Function



Protect the body
(from infection)
To keep infectious
organisms (bacteria,
viruses, and fungi) out
of the body
Destroy infections that
do invade the body
The Immune System
Organs


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


Adenoids
Appendix
Blood vessels
Bone marrow
Lymph nodes
Lymphatic vessels
Peyer’s patches
Spleen
Thymus
Tonsils
The Immune System
Recognizing pathogens
 An
immune response start when B cells or
T cells react to a foreign antigen in the
body.
 Their reaction causes plasma cells to
release antibodies into the lymph, then
the antibodies are transported through
the blood, and then the entire body
 The antibodies find and help destroy the
harmful antigens
The Immune System
Active Immunity
 Naturally


acquired (Ex: chickenpox)
Develops after a primary immune response
A response to exposure to a live pathogen
and development of symptoms
 Artificially


acquired (Ex: polio vaccine)
A person gets a killed or weakened strand
of a bacteria or virus
This stimulates the immune system without
harming the person
The Immune System
Passive Immunity

Artificially acquired (Ex: antiserum for Hepatitis
A)




An injection of antibodies or antitoxins
Passive because the body doesn’t produce
antibodies
Only short term immunity
Naturally acquired (Ex: breast feeding)


Antibodies passed to a fetus or baby from a
pregnant or nursing woman
Short-term immunity for baby
The Immune System
Humoral immunity
 Humoral
refers to fluid
 Kind of immune response stimulated by B
cells
 Plasma cells produce and secrete up to
2000 antibody molecules a second
 Body fluids carry antibodies, which then
destroy bad antigens
The Immune System
Cell-mediated immunity
T
cells attach to foreign,
antigen-bearing cells and
interact cell-to-cell contact
The Immune System
B and T Lymphocytes

Activation

T cells
requires an antigen-presenting cell (a cell with
fragments of antigens attached to it) in order to
be activated
 activation begins when a macrophage
phagocytizes a bacterium


B cells
become activated when it encounters an
antigen that fits its antigen receptors
 Most need T cells help to activate

The Immune System
B and T Lymphocytes
 Action

T Cells
 Provide
cellular immune response in which T
cells interact directly with the antigens to
destroy them

B cells
 Provide
humoral immune response in which B
cells interact indirectly, producing antibodies
that destroy the antigens
The Immune System
Antibiotics and viruses
 Antibiotics
work to
destroy living bacteria
 They don’t work against
viruses because they
aren’t living
 Because viruses are not
“alive” antibiotics can’t
“kill” them
The Immune System
HIV/AIDS



Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) causes
acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)
Virus that attacks white blood cells and eventually
shuts down the immune system
Symptoms


Prevalence


Chills, fever, rash, sweats, swollen lymph glands,
weakness, weight loss
6th leading cause of death in 25-44yr olds in the US
Treatment


No cure yet
Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART)
The Immune System
Rheumatoid Arthritis


Autoimmune disorder that’s causes chronic
inflammation of the joints on both sides of the
body
Symptoms


Prevalence


Joint pain and swelling, stiffness, fatigue
Affects 1% of US, more common in women and
the middle aged
Treatment

Anti-inflammatory & pain killing drugs, rest &
exercise, surgery
The Immune System
Works Cited
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
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

Butler, Jackie, and Ricki Lewis. "Digestive System." Hole's
Human Anatomy & Physiology. By David Shier. 11th ed. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 2007. N. pag. Print.
Campbell, Neil A., and Jane B. Reece. Biology. San
Francisco: Benjamin Cummings, 2002. Print.
http://medicalcenter.osu.edu/patientcare/healthcare_servi
ces/infectious_diseases/immunesystem/Pages/index.aspx
http://curiosity.discovery.com/question/antibiotics-immuneto-viruses
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001620/
#adam_000594.disease.treatment
http://www.webmd.com/rheumatoidarthritis/guide/rheumatoid-arthritis-basics?page=2
http://www.activamune.com/immune_system.PNG
http://www.garmaonhealth.com/wpcontent/uploads/2012/11/immune_system.jpg
Nervous
System
The Nervous System
Functions
 Sensory

Gather information by detecting changes
inside and outside of the body.
 Integrative

Create sensations, add to memories, help
produce thoughts
 Motor

Cause muscles to react to nerve impulses
The Nervous System
Central Nervous System
 CNS

The part of the nervous system in
vertebrates composed of the brain and the
spinal cord
 Major


parts
Brain
Spinal Cord
The Nervous System
Peripheral Nervous System
 PNS

The sensory and motor
neurons that connect to
the central nervous system
 Major


parts
Cranial parts
Spinal nerves
The Nervous System
Drawing of a
neuron
The Nervous System
Simple reflex arc of knee-jerk
Reflex initiated by tapping the
tendons connected to
reflex
quadriceps
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Sensors detect a sudden stretch
in quadriceps
Sensory neurons convey the
information to the spinal cord
Sensory neurons communicate
with motor neurons, causing
quads to contract and jerk the
lower leg forward
Sensory neurons communicate
with interneurons in the spinal
cord
Interneurons inhibit motor
neurons that supply the
hamstrings and prevents
hamstrings to resist the action of
the quads
The Nervous System
The Brain

Frontal lobe



Parietal lobe



Provide sensations of temperature,
touch, pressure, and pain
involving the skin
Understanding speech and in
using words to express thoughts
and feelings
Temporal lobe



Association areas carry on higher
intellectual processes for
concentrating, planning, complex
problem solving, and judging the
consequences of behavior
control voluntary muscle
movements
Responsible for hearing
Interpret sensory experiences and
remember visual scenes, music,
and other complex sensory
patterns
Occipital lobe


Responsible for vision
Visual images with other sensory
experiences
The Nervous System
How nerve impulses travel
through neurons

The neuron’s membrane is polarized



When the nerve is stimulated



the ion gated channel is opened depolarizing the membrane
by letting NA+ in K+ out
the neuron reaches threshold potential
When threshold is reached


Na+ on the outside and K+ and negative nucleic acids/protein
on the inside of the membrane
The neuron is at resting potential and inactive
action potential results, setting up a nerve impulse
After nerve impulse passes refractory period is triggered

The gates close, the nerve is repolarized, and resting potential
reached again.
The Nervous System
How a nerve impulse
travels through
neurons
The Nervous System
Neurotransmitters



Neurons release neurotransmitters to diffuse across
the synaptic cleft and react with the receptors in
the postsynaptic membrane of the other neuron
They open/close channels, stimulate muscle
contraction, etc.
IPSP



Inhibitory postsynaptic potential
Makes action potential less likely to occur
EPSP


Excitatory postsynaptic potential
Making action potential more likely to happen
The Nervous System
Alzheimer disease


A type of Dementia that causes problems with
memory and behavior caused by an acetylcholine
deficiency
Symptoms


Prevalence


Memory loss, depression, disorientation, dementia,
hallucinations, death
Accounts for 50-80% of dementia cases, most people
with Alzheimer’s are 65 though early on-set can occur at
40
Treatment

No current cure, but clinical trials and treatment sessions
help to slow progress
The Nervous System
Multiple Sclerosis


Disorder of the central nervous system where the
myelin coating in the brain and spinal cord
become inflamed and destroyed leaving scars
that block neurons
Symptoms


Prevalence


Blurred vision, numbness, paralysis, depression,
fatigue
2.5 million worldwide, 400,000 in North America
Treatment

Drugs such as steroids, Beta interferon, and
Glatiramer acetate
The Nervous System
Works Cited




http://www.methuen.k12.ma.us/mnmelan/M
ain%20Page/movingimpulse.jpg
http://www.alz.org/alzheimers_disease_what_i
s_alzheimers.asp
Butler, Jackie, and Ricki Lewis. "Digestive
System." Hole's Human Anatomy & Physiology.
By David Shier. 11th ed. New York: McGrawHill, 2007. N. pag. Print.
Campbell, Neil A., and Jane B. Reece.
Biology. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings,
2002. Print.