Transcript Biological Perspective Studies

Biological Perspective Studies
How well does biological psychology
explain others and you?
Biological Principles
1. Behavior is innate because it is genetically based.
2. Animal research can provide insight into human behavior.
3. There are biological correlates of behavior--physiological origins of behaviors
and thinking—neurons, neurotransmitters, hormones, genes, brain parts—
localization.
Other things to consider: Use of Technology/Brain Imaging Techniques,
Interactionist Model—nature and nurture influence—environment can affect
physiology, Cognitive and Physiological Correlates, Brain Plasticity, Twin
Studies—Genetics and Behavior, Intelligence, Evolutionary Psychology
Groups: A. neurons and intracommunication/action potential, B. Inhibitory
neurotransmitters (serotonin, dopamine, endorphins, GABA), C. Excitatory
neurotransmitters (acetylcholine, norepinephrine, glutamate), D. hormones
(oxytocin, cortisol, melatonin, adrenaline), E. genes—twin studies, F. brain
parts (hypothalamus, thalamus, hippocampus, amygdala), G. brain parts
(cerebral cortex, corpus callosum, pons, cerebellum, reticular formation,
medulla), H. brain imaging (EEG, CT, MRI), I. brain imaging (fMRI, PET)
Galvani (1791)
• It was through the accidental overlap of these two seemingly
dissimilar areas of scientific effort that Galvani made his greatest
discoveries. He noticed that the dissected legs of frogs in his
laboratory seemed to jump to life under various conditions. For
instance, when one of his assistants placed a scalpel against the
exposed nerve of one specimen, which was sitting on a table
previously used in electrostatic experiments, the legs of the frog
suddenly kicked. In a similar event, when Galvani used a scalpel
made of steel to cut the leg of a frog anchored on a brass hook, the
leg visibly twitched. Based on such unusual observations Galvani
concluded that there was a type of electrical fluid inherent in the
body, which he dubbed animal electricity. According to his view,
the nervous system delivered animal electricity to muscle tissue.
http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/tutorials/pioneers/galvani.htm
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Von Helmholtz (1850)
• Helmholtz' technique was quite simple. He first cut out a muscle and an
attached nerve fiber from a frog's leg. The experiment then consisted of
stimulating the nerve at various distances from the muscle and measuring
the length of time between nerve stimulation and muscle contraction.
First, he electrically stimulated the nerve close to the point at which it
attaches to the muscle, then he stimulated the nerve farther from this
point of attachment. He found that the second reaction time (that is, the
time between stimulation and contraction) was longer than the first. To
obtain an estimate of the nerve impulse speed, he used a simple bit of
reasoning: The difference in time between the two measurements must
correspond to the time it takes the nerve impulse to travel the distance
between the two points of stimulation (see Fig. 1). Hence, the distance
between the point of stimulation divided by the time difference between
the conditions of stimulating close to the muscle versus stimulating
farther away should yield an estimate of nerve impulse speed. This is how
he obtained his estimate of fifty to one hundred meters per second.
http://www3.wheatonma.edu/kmorgan/BrainMindBehavior/NerveImpulse.ht
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Golgi (1875)
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Camillo Golgi was responsible for inventing a specific staining technique for
neurons, which he called "the reazione nera" (the black reaction). It consisted in
fixing silver chromate particles to the neurilemma (the neuron membrane) by
reacting silver nitrate with potassium bichromate. This resulted in a stark black
deposit on the soma as well as on the axon and all dendrites, providing a
exceedingly clear and well contrasted picture of neuron against an yellow
background (see picture below). For the first time, neuroanatomists could follow
where the ramifications went in and out a particular spot in the nervous system,
and describe with exquisite detail all the richness of these ramifications. A
marvelous picture of complexity emerged, and Golgi was able to explore it in full,
describing for the first time, for example, that axons also gave collaterals, which
provided a divergence of connexion which was heretofore suspected of, but not
proven.
Golgi defended the reticularist position, though, because he could not see with
certainty that axons did not fuse to other cells. He wrote: “There is certainly to be
found a very widespread network of filaments anastomosing one with the other
throughout the gray matter of the brain.”
http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n17/history/neurons3_i.htm
Ramon y Cajal (1906)
• Particularly relevant were Cajal s conclusions about the way action
currents propagate in neuronal networks, always in the direction of
dendrites to axons, and there to the dendrites or soma of other
neurons. He called this the Law of Dynamic Polarization , which was
another fundamental contribution to neurophysiology.
• The neuronal doctrine had four tenets:
• The neuron is the structural and functional unit of the nervous
system;
• Neurons are individual cells, which are not continuous to other
neurons, neither anatomically nor genetically;
• The neuron has three parts: dendrites, soma (cell body) and axon.
The axon has several terminal arborizations, which make close
contact to dendrites or the soma of other neurons;
• Conduction takes place in the direction from dendrites to soma, to
the end arborizations of the axon
http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n17/history/neurons3_i.htm
Loewi (1921)
• Loewi's experiment
– Loewi arranged two frog's hearts so that the baths they were in could be
circulated through both preparations by way of a pump that could be turned
on and off.
– One heart still had the vagus nerve attached. Stimulation of the vagus nerve
slows the heart rate.
– If the pump was turned off, and one heart was stimulated, there was no effect
on the second heart.
– If the pump was turned on, and one heart was stimulated, after a delay the
second heart was also affected.
– This showed that something released by the nerve and that could circulate in
the bath must be influencing heart rate. This had to be a chemical substance.
• Loewi was convinced the chemical substance was acetylcholine, since
direct application of acetylcholine to the heart muscle also caused it to
slow.
• But he couldn't prove it, so he called the chemical substance vagusstoff.
• Later it was demonstrated that vagusstoff was, in fact, acetylcholine.
http://ww2.coastal.edu/kingw/psyc460/neurotransmitters/discovery/discove
ry.html
J.Z. Young (1936)
• He then made a careful study of the anatomy of the mantles, and in his
classical paper on `The functioning of the giant nerve fibres of the squid'
(Young, 1938), he showed that the third order giant axons served to bring
about the precisely coordinated contraction of the mantle causing
expulsion of a powerful jet of water propelling the animals rapidly
backwards or forwards according to the position of the funnel, sometimes
accompanied by a slug of `ink' to assist the animal's escape.
• Having confirmed that the squid giant axons did conduct action potentials,
and having with R. J. Pumphrey in 1938 (Young and Pumphrey, 1938)
looked at the effect of their diameter on the rate of conduction, the only
respect in which J.Z. subsequently involved himself in research on the
ionic basis of conduction was to measure their electrolyte content (Young
and Webb, 1945).
http://jeb.biologists.org/content/208/2/179.short
http://www.science.smith.edu/departments/NeuroSci/courses/bio330/squid.
html
Hodgin and Huxley (1939, 52)
• Hodgkin and Huxley's work with the giant squid axon
was the first to use mathematical models to represent
biological systems. Due to Hodgkin and Huxley's
findings, we are able to understand how an action
potential propagates along a nerve and the functions
of their associated ion channels.
• The Resting Potential
• The Model Cell
• The Constant Field Equation
• The Resting Membrane Potential
• The Action Potential
http://www.swarthmore.edu/NatSci/echeeve1/Ref/HH/
Harlow
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In 1848, Gage, 25, was the foreman of a crew cutting a railroad bed in Cavendish, Vermont.
On September 13, as he was using a tamping iron to pack explosive powder into a hole, the
powder detonated. The tamping iron—43 inches long, 1.25 inches in diameter and weighing
13.25 pounds—shot skyward, penetrated Gage’s left cheek, ripped into his brain and exited
through his skull, landing several dozen feet away. Though blinded in his left eye, he might
not even have lost consciousness, and he remained savvy enough to tell a doctor that day,
“Here is business enough for you.”
Gage’s initial survival would have ensured him a measure of celebrity, but his name was
etched into history by observations made by John Martyn Harlow, the doctor who treated
him for a few months afterward. Gage’s friends found him“no longer Gage,” Harlow wrote.
The balance between his “intellectual faculties and animal propensities” seemed gone. He
could not stick to plans, uttered “the grossest profanity” and showed “little deference for his
fellows.” The railroad-construction company that employed him, which had thought him a
model foreman, refused to take him back. So Gage went to work at a stable in New
Hampshire, drove coaches in Chile and eventually joined relatives in San Francisco, where he
died in May 1860, at age 36, after a series of seizures.
Read more: http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/Phineas-GageNeurosciences-Most-Famous-Patient.html#ixzz2kySYrhR3
Broca (1860s)
• Broca is most famous for his discovery of the speech production center of
the brain located in the ventroposterior region of the frontal lobes (now
known as Broca's area). He arrived at this discovery by studying the brains
of aphasic patients. His first patient in the Bicêtre Hospital was Leborgne,
nicknamed "Tan" due to his inability to clearly speak any words other than
"tan".
• In 1861, through post-mortem autopsy, Broca determined that Tan had
a lesion caused bysyphilis in the left cerebral hemisphere. This lesion was
determined to cover the area of the brain important for speech
production, affecting syntactic skills of patients. (Although history credits
this discovery to Broca, another French neurologist, Marc Dax, made
similar observations a generation earlier.) Today the brains of many of
Broca's aphasic patients are still preserved in the Musée Dupuytren, and
his collection of casts in the Musée d'Anatomie Delmas-Orfila-Rouvière.
Broca presented his findings on the localisation of language at the 1868
British Association meeting in Norwich, chaired by Joseph Dalton Hooker,
and the subsequent discussions included Hughlings Jackson.
http://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Paul_Broca.html
Wernicke (1870s)
• In 1873, Wernicke studied a patient who had suffered a stroke. Although
the man was able to speak and his hearing was unimpaired, he could
barely understand what was said to him. Nor could he understand written
words. After he died, Wernicke found a lesion in the rear
parietal/temporal region of the patient's left brain hemisphere. Wernicke
concluded that this region, which is close to the auditory region of the
brain, was involved in speech comprehension. Wernicke named the
syndrome sensory aphasia, although now it is usually called Wernicke's
aphasia. The affected region of the brain is known as Wernicke's area. The
syndrome is sometimes called fluent aphasia since the victim is capable of
speech; however words may be misused and the speech may be
disordered or even without content. For this reason, scientists now believe
that Wernicke's area may be involved in semantic processing, and it is
sometimes called the receptive language area.
Read more: Carl Wernicke - Describes Wernicke's aphasia, Describes
Wernicke's encephalopathy - Right Hemisphere Of The Brain, Right Brain,
and Brain - JRank Articles http://psychology.jrank.org/pages/652/CarlWernicke.html#ixzz2kyTsiT62
Heath (1950s)
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Abstract (1963)
Studies are described of two human patients under treatment with ICSS. Their
subjective reports in association with stimulation to reward areas of the brain are
presented. The data indicate that patients will [See Figure 6. in Source PDF] [See
Figure 7. in Source PDF] stimulate regions of the brain at a high frequency for
reasons other than to obtain a pleasurable response. These data extend
information obtained from ICSS in animals.
http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/article.aspx?articleID=149327 and
http://www.tulanelink.com/tulanelink/twoviews_04a.htm
Around the same time in the 1950s and 1960s, American psychiatrist Robert Heath
at Tulane University took it upon himself to further these findings in some ethically
questionable experiments on mentally ill human patients (Baumeister, 2000).
Infamously, in one case he even implanted electrodes to try to cure homosexuality
(Heath, 1972). This line of research was eventually stopped. Most substantively,
however, the pleasure electrodes may never have lived up to their name. Although
the researchers also found compulsive lever pressing in some patients, it was
never clear from these patients’ subjective reports that the electrodes did indeed
cause real pleasure. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3008353/
Olds and Milner (1954)
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POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT PRODUCED BY ELECTRICAL STIMULATION OF SEPTAL
AREA AND OTHER REGIONS OF RAT BRAIN.
Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, Vol 47(6), Dec 1954, 419427. doi: 10.1037/h0058775
After implantation of electrodes at various points in the brains of rats, the animals
were placed in a Skinner box, arranged in such a manner that they could stimulate
themselves by pressing the lever. The results indicate that various places exist in
the brain "where electrical stimulation is rewarding in the sense that the
experimental animal will stimulate itself in these places frequently and regularly
for long periods of time if permitted to do so." The reward phenomenon appears
most reliably when the electrodes are placed in the septal region, where an
extreme degree of control was observed.
http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=search.displayRecord&uid=1955-06866-001
Just over fifty years ago, psychologists James Olds and Peter Milner, working at
McGill University in Canada, carried out their pioneering experiments which
discovered that rats would repeatedly press levers to receive tiny jolts of current
injected through electrodes implanted deep within their brains (Olds and Milner,
1954). Especially when this brain stimulation was targeted at certain areas of the
brain in the region of the septum and nucleus accumbens, the rats would
repeatedly press the lever -- even up to 2000 times per hour (Olds, 1956).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3008353/
Hetherington and Ranson (1940s)
• A.W Hetherington and S.W Ranson conducted
one of the first experiments studying regulation
of feeding behavior in the 1940s in which they
used a Horsely-Clark instrument to make
hypothalamic lesions. They found that lesions in
the lateral hypothalamus caused the rats to stop
eating, while lesions in the ventromedial
hypothalamus caused the animals to overeat,
leading to obesity.
https://wiki.brown.edu/confluence/display/BN0193
S04/Historical+Background
Milner (1957) and Corkin (1997)
H.M. is probably the best known single patient in
the history of neuroscience. His severe memory
impairment, which resulted from experimental
neurosurgery to control seizures, was the subject of
study for five decades until his death in December
2008. Work with H.M. established fundamental
principles about how memory functions are
organized in the brain.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC264
9674/
Gazzaniga and Sperry (1960s)
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Each hemisphere is still able to learn after the split brain operation but one
hemisphere has no idea about what the other hemisphere has experienced or
learned. Today, new methods and technology in split brain operation make it
possible
to cut off only a tiny portion and not the whole of the corpus callosum of patients.
The studies demonstrated that the left and right hemispheres are specialized in
different tasks. The left side of the brain is normally specialized in taking care of
the analytical and verbal tasks. The left side speaks much better than the right
side, while the right half takes care of the space perception tasks and music, for
example. The right hemisphere is involved when you are making a map or giving
directions on how to get to your home from the bus station. The right hemisphere
can only produce rudimentary words and phrases, but contributes emotional
context to language. Without the help from the right hemisphere, you would be
able to read the word "pig" for instance, but you wouldn't be able to imagine what
it is.
http://www.nobelprize.org/educational/medicine/split-brain/background.html
http://www.nature.com/news/the-split-brain-a-tale-of-two-halves-1.10213
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=82tlVcq6E7A&list=PLEE6E3B5E90A6A5AF
Rosenzweig and Bennett (1972) rats
Kasamatsu and Hirai (1999)
Davidson et al. (2004) monks
Vestergaard-Poulsen et al. (2009) meditation
Gallese (1996) rhesus monkeys
Iacoboni (2004) fMRI humans
Bouchard (1990) twins
Newcomer et el. (1999) cortisol
Fisher (2004) dopamine
Martinez and Kesner (1991) Ach rats
Baumgartner et al (2008) oxytocin
Bremner et al. (2003) PTSD
Ashtari (2009) MRI substance abuse
Harris and Fiske (2006) fMRI students
Caspi et al. (2003) 5-HTT gene
Fessler et al. (2005) pregnancy sensitivity
Hubel and Wiesel
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PM
C2718241/
Rosenzweig and Bennett (1972) rats
• The differences in cortical weights among groups were caused by
differences in cortical thickness: animals exposed to the EC
environment developed slightly but significantly thicker cerebral
cortices than their SC or IC littermates had (M. C. Diamond, 1967;
M. C. Diamond et al., 1964). More-refined neuroanatomical
measurements were soon undertaken on pyramidal cells in the
occipital cortex, including sizes of cell bodies, counts of dendritic
spines, measurements of dendritic branching, and measurements
of the size of synaptic contacts (M. R. Rosenzweig et al., 1972). Each
of these measurements showed significant effects of differential
experience, as we will see shortly.
• http://www.biopsychology.com/6e/step1703.html
• http://education.jhu.edu/PD/newhorizons/Neurosciences/articles/
Response%20of%20the%20Brain%20to%20Enrichment/
Kasamatsu and Hirai (1999)
• Aim: to see how sensory deprivation affects the brain
• Studied a group of Buddhist monks who went on a 72 hour
pilgrimage to a holy mountain in Japan. Monks did not consume
food or water, they did not speak, and they were exposed to the
cold, late autumn weather. After about 48 hours, they began to
have hallucinations, often seeing ancient ancestors or feeling a
presence by their sides. Researchers took blood samples before the
monks ascended the mountain, and then again immediately after
having hallucinations.
• Findings: serotonin level increase that activated parts of the
hypothalamus and frontal cortex resulting in hallucinations
• Conclusions: Sensory deprivation triggered release of serotonin.
• Crane, John and Hannibal, Jette. IB Diploma Programme Psychology
Course Companion.
Martinez and Kesner (1991)
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The aim of this experiment was to determine the role of the NT acetylcholine
(ACH) on memory. ACH is believed to have a role in memory formation. Rats were
trained to go through a maze, to the end, where they received food. Once the rats
were able to do this, they were divided into 3 groups.
Group 1: rats were injected with scopolamine, which blocks ACH receptor sites
(decreasing available ACH)
Group 2: rats injected with physostigmine (fis-o-stig-mean) which blocks the
production of cholinesterase (chol-in-ester-aise) which ―cleans-up‖ ACH from the
synapse and returns the neuron to a ―resting state.‖ Without this, there was
more ACH to excite the neurons.
Group 3: control group, rats were given no injections.
The results: Group 1 rats were slower in the maze, and made more errors. Group 2
rats ran through the maze, found food even quicker, made fewer errors, and were
even better than the control group. Researchers concluded that ACH plays an
important role in creating a memory of the maze.
http://www.wsfcs.k12.nc.us/cms/lib/NC01001395/Centricity/Domain/1125/Unit%
202%20%20Biological%20Perspective.pdf
Gallese (1996)
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Action recognition in the premotor cortex.
Gallese V, Fadiga L, Fogassi L, Rizzolatti G.
Source
Istituto di Fisiologia Umana, Università di Parma, Italy.
Abstract
We recorded electrical activity from 532 neurons in the rostral part of inferior area 6 (area F5) of two macaque monkeys.
Previous data had shown that neurons of this area discharge during goal-directed hand and mouth movements. We describe
here the properties of a newly discovered set of F5 neurons ("mirror neurons', n = 92) all of which became active both when
the monkey performed a given action and when it observed a similar action performed by the experimenter. Mirror neurons,
in order to be visually triggered, required an interaction between the agent of the action and the object of it. The sight of
the agent alone or of the object alone (three-dimensional objects, food) were ineffective. Hand and the mouth were by far
the most effective agents. The actions most represented among those activating mirror neurons were grasping,
manipulating and placing. In most mirror neurons (92%) there was a clear relation between the visual action they responded
to and the motor response they coded. In approximately 30% of mirror neurons the congruence was very strict and the
effective observed and executed actions corresponded both in terms of general action (e.g. grasping) and in terms of the
way in which that action was executed (e.g. precision grip). We conclude by proposing that mirror neurons form a system for
matching observation and execution of motor actions. We discuss the possible role of this system in action recognition and,
given the proposed homology between F5 and human Brocca's region, we posit that a matching system, similar to that of
mirror neurons exists in humans and could be involved in recognition of actions as well as phonetic gestures.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8800951
Iacoboni (2004)
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A similar phenomenon takes place when we watch someone experience an emotion and feel the
same emotion in response, says Marco Iacoboni, a neuroscientist at the University of California, Los
Angeles. The same neural systems get activated in a part of the cortex called the insula, which is
part of the mirror neuron system, and in the emotional brain areas associated with the observed
emotion. However, the amount of activation is slightly smaller for the “mirrored experience” than
when the same emotion is experienced directly, Iacoboni adds. A recent study by Iacoboni and
colleagues highlights the impor-tance of mirror neurons and their role in the development of
autism spectrum disorder (ASD). ASD is a pervasive developmental disorder characterized by
impaired social interactions. Iacoboni’s team used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to
investigate neural activi-ty of 10 high-functioning children with ASD and 10 normally developing
children as they observed and imitated facial emotional expressions. Although both groups
performed the tasks equally well, children with autism showed reduced mirror neuron activity,
particularly in the area of the inferior frontal gyrus. Moreover, the degree of reduction in mirror
neu-ron activity in the children with autism correlated with the severity of their symptoms.
Iacoboni says, these results indicate that a healthy mirror neuron system is crucial for normal social
development.
http://www.dnalc.org/view/852-Mirror-Neurons-and-Empathy.html
Ramachandran: The Neurons that Shaped Civilization:
https://www.ted.com/talks/vs_ramachandran_the_neurons_that_shaped_civilization?language=en
and http://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/do_mirror_neurons_give_empathy and
http://www.wired.com/2013/12/a-calm-look-at-the-most-hyped-concept-in-neuroscience-mirrorneurons/
Davidson et al. (2004) monks
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Practitioners understand “meditation,” or mental training, to be a process of familiarization with one's
own mental life leading to long-lasting changes in cognition and emotion. Little is known about this
process and its impact on the brain. Here we find that long-term Buddhist practitioners self-induce
sustained electroencephalographic high-amplitude gamma-band oscillations and phase-synchrony during
meditation. These electroencephalogram patterns differ from those of controls, in particular over lateral
frontoparietal electrodes. In addition, the ratio of gamma-band activity (25-42 Hz) to slow oscillatory
activity (4-13 Hz) is initially higher in the resting baseline before meditation for the practitioners than the
controls over medial frontoparietal electrodes. This difference increases sharply during meditation over
most of the scalp electrodes and remains higher than the initial baseline in the postmeditation baseline.
These data suggest that mental training involves temporal integrative mechanisms and may induce shortterm and long-term neural changes.
Little is known about the process of meditation and its impact on the brain (1, 2). Previous studies show
the general role of neural synchrony, in particular in the gamma-band frequencies (25-70Hz), in mental
processes such as attention, working-memory, learning, or conscious perception (3-7). Such
synchronizations of oscillatory neural discharges are thought to play a crucial role in the constitution of
transient networks that integrate distributed neural processes into highly ordered cognitive and affective
functions (8, 9) and could induce synaptic changes (10, 11). Neural synchrony thus appears as a promising
mechanism for the study of brain processes underlining mental training.
http://www.pnas.org/content/101/46/16369.long
http://psyphz.psych.wisc.edu/web/News/Meditation_Alters_Brain_WSJ_11-04.htm
Vestergaard-Poulsen et al. (2009)
• Long-term meditation is associated with increased gray matter density in
the brain stem.
• Vestergaard-Poulsen P, van Beek M, Skewes J, Bjarkam CR, Stubberup
M, Bertelsen J, Roepstorff A.
• Abstract
• Extensive practice involving sustained attention can lead to changes in
brain structure. Here, we report evidence of structural differences in the
lower brainstem of participants engaged in the long-term practice of
meditation. Using magnetic resonance imaging, we observed higher gray
matter density in lower brain stem regions of experienced meditators
compared with age-matched nonmeditators. Our findings show that longterm practitioners of meditation have structural differences in brainstem
regions concerned with cardiorespiratory control. This could account for
some of the cardiorespiratory parasympathetic effects and traits, as well
as the cognitive, emotional, and immunoreactive impact reported in
several studies of different meditation practices.
• http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19104459
Newcomer et. al (1999)
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A total of 51 people participated in the study -- 25 men and 26 women between ages 18 and 30.
They were assigned to one of three groups. One group of seven men and eight women received a
high daily dose of cortisol. A second group of eight men and eight women took a lower dose, and
the remaining 10 men and 10 women received an inactive substance. All took their capsules twice
daily for four days. The amounts mimicked cortisol levels secreted in response to stressful medical
procedures. The high dose corresponds to cortisol secretion after events like abdominal surgery.
The lower dose was similar to cortisol secretion during a minor medical procedure such as getting
stitches or having a skin growth removed.
The volunteers also were asked to listen to and recall parts of a paragraph so the researchers could
assess their verbal declarative memory. This type of memory involves several brain regions,
including the hippocampus, a seahorse-shaped brain structure related to memory and learning. The
memory test, as well as tests of other cognitive functions, were given before the cortisol treatment,
after one day of treatment, after four days of treatment and six days after the subjects stopped
taking cortisol.
Newcomer, who also is a staff psychiatrist at Barnes-Jewish Hospital, found that memory
performance suffered only in those subjects who received the high dose of cortisol and only after
the subjects had received the hormone for several days. Fourteen of the 15 individuals taking the
high dose experienced a decrease in memory performance after four days of treatment. No effects
were found on the other cognitive tests.
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1999/06/990617072302.htm
Berridge and Kringelbach (2009)
• Over fifty years ago the discovery that rats would work to electrically
stimulate their brains suggested the intriguing possibility that bliss could
be achieved through the use of ‘pleasure electrodes’ implanted deep
within the brain. Subsequent research has failed to bring about this brave
new world of boundless pleasure, but more recent findings have started to
throw new light on the intriguing links between brain mechanisms of
pleasure and happiness. We discuss these findings of the underlying
neural mechanisms and functional neuroanatomy of pleasure in the brain.
In particular we address how they may come to shed light on our
understanding of the brain basis of happiness. Beyond sensory pleasures,
we examine how higher pleasures may be related to the brain’s default
networks, especially in orchestrating cognitive aspects of the
meaningfulness important to happiness. We also address how
understanding of the hedonic brain might help alleviate the suffering
caused by the lack of pleasure, anhedonia, which is a central feature of
affective disorders such as depression and chronic pain.
• http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3008353/
Fisher (2004)
• dopamine and love
• http://www.helenfisher.com/downloads/articl
es/13JourCompNeur.pdf
Baumgartner et al (2008)
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Oxytocin shapes the neural circuitry of trust and trust adaptation in humans.
Trust and betrayal of trust are ubiquitous in human societies. Recent behavioral
evidence shows that the neuropeptide oxytocin increases trust among humans,
thus offering a unique chance of gaining a deeper understanding of the neural
mechanisms underlying trust and the adaptation to breach of trust. We examined
the neural circuitry of trusting behavior by combining the intranasal, double-blind,
administration of oxytocin with fMRI. We find that subjects in the oxytocin group
show no change in their trusting behavior after they learned that their trust had
been breached several times while subjects receiving placebo decrease their trust.
This difference in trust adaptation is associated with a specific reduction in
activation in the amygdala, the midbrain regions, and the dorsal striatum in
subjects receiving oxytocin, suggesting that neural systems mediating fear
processing (amygdala and midbrain regions) and behavioral adaptations to
feedback information (dorsal striatum) modulate oxytocin's effect on trust. These
findings may help to develop deeper insights into mental disorders such as social
phobia and autism, which are characterized by persistent fear or avoidance of
social interactions.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18498743
http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=to-trust-or-not-to-trust
Rosenthal (1987)
• Seasonal Affective Disorder
• Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a recently described
mood disorder characterized by recurrent winter
depressive episodes and summer remissions. The
symptoms of SAD include DSM III-R criteria for recurrent
major depression, but atypical depressive symptoms
predominate with hypersomnia, hyperphagia and
carbohydrate craving, and anergia. Seasonal affective
disorder is effectively treated by exposure to bright light
(phototherapy or light therapy), a novel antidepressant
treatment. The authors review the syndrome of SAD,
hypotheses about its pathophysiology, and the use of
phototherapy to treat the disorder.
• http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2280502/
Bouchard (1990)
•
Sources of human psychological differences: the Minnesota Study of Twins
Reared Apart
•
Since 1979, a continuing study of monozygotic and dizygotic twins, separated in
infancy and reared apart, has subjected more than 100 sets of reared-apart twins
or triplets to a week of intensive psychological and physiological assessment. Like
the prior, smaller studies of monozygotic twins reared apart, about 70% of the
variance in IQ was found to be associated with genetic variation. On multiple
measures of personality and temperament, occupational and leisure-time
interests, and social attitudes, monozygotic twins reared apart are about as
similar as are monozygotic twins reared together. These findings extend and
support those from numerous other twin, family, and adoption studies. It is a
plausible hypothesis that genetic differences affect psychological differences
largely indirectly, by influencing the effective environment of the developing
child. This evidence for the strong heritability of most psychological traits,
sensibly construed, does not detract from the value or importance of parenting,
education, and other propaedeutic interventions.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/250/4978/223
•
Scarr and Weinberg (1977)
• https://lesacreduprintemps19.files.wordpress.
com/2012/05/mtras1.pdf
Wahlsten (1997)
• https://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/D_Wahlsten
_Increasing_1995.pdf
Perry (1997)
• Effects of Neglect on the Brain
• http://www.ou.edu/cwtraining/assets/pdf/ha
ndouts/2010/Altered%20brain%20developme
nt%20following%20global%20neglect.pdf
• https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubPDFs/early
brain.pdf
Bremner et al. (2003)
•
•
•
Abstract
OBJECTIVE: Animal studies have suggested that early stress is associated with
alterations in the hippocampus, a brain area that plays a critical role in learning
and memory. The purpose of this study was to measure both hippocampal
structure and function in women with and without early childhood sexual abuse
and the diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). METHOD: Thirty-three
women participated in this study, including women with early childhood sexual
abuse and PTSD (N=10), women with abuse without PTSD (N=12), and women
without abuse or PTSD (N=11). Hippocampal volume was measured with magnetic
resonance imaging in all subjects, and hippocampal function during the
performance of hippocampal-based verbal declarative memory tasks was
measured by using positron emission tomography in abused women with and
without PTSD. RESULTS: A failure of hippocampal activation and 16% smaller
volume of the hippocampus were seen in women with abuse and PTSD compared
to women with abuse without PTSD. Women with abuse and PTSD had a 19%
smaller hippocampal volume relative to women without abuse or
PTSD. CONCLUSIONS: These results are consistent with deficits in hippocampal
function and structure in abuse-related PTSD.
http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/article.aspx?articleID=176214
Ashtari (2009)
•
•
•
•
•
•
There is growing evidence that adolescence is a key period for neuronal maturation. Despite the high
prevalence of marijuana use among adolescents and young adults in the United States and internationally,
very little is known about its impact on the developing brain. Based on neuroimaging literature on normal
brain developmental during adolescence, we hypothesized that individuals with heavy cannabis use (HCU)
would have brain structure abnormalities in similar brain regions that undergo development during late
adolescence, particularly the fronto-temporal connection.
Fourteen young adult males in residential treatment for cannabis dependence and 14 age-matched
healthy male control subjects were recruited. Patients had a history of HCU throughout adolescence; 5
had concurrent alcohol abuse. Subjects underwent structural and diffusion tensor magnetic resonance
imaging. White matter integrity was compared between subject groups using voxelwise and fiber
tractography analysis.
Voxelwise and tractography analyses revealed that adolescents with HCU had reduced fractional
anisotropy, increased radial diffusivity, and increased trace in the homologous areas known to be involved
in ongoing development during late adolescence, particularly in the fronto-temporal connection via
arcuate fasciculus.
Our results support the hypothesis that heavy cannabis use during adolescence may affect the trajectory
of normal brain maturation. Due to concurrent alcohol consumption in five HCU subjects, conclusions from
this study should be considered preliminary, as the DTI findings reported here may be reflective of the
combination of alcohol and marijuana use. Further research in larger samples, longitudinal in nature, and
controlling for alcohol consumption is needed to better understand the pathophysiology of the effect of
cannabis on the developing brain.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19111160
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/02/090202175105.htm
Harris and Fiske (2006)
•
•
•
•
Dehumanizing the lowest of the low: neuroimaging responses to extreme out-groups.
Abstract
Traditionally, prejudice has been conceptualized as simple animosity. The stereotype content
model (SCM) shows that some prejudice is worse. The SCM previously demonstrated
separate stereotype dimensions of warmth (low-high) and competence (low-high),
identifying four distinct out-group clusters. The SCM predicts that only extreme out-groups,
groups that are both stereotypically hostile and stereotypically incompetent (low warmth,
low competence), such as addicts and the homeless, will be dehumanized. Prior studies show
that the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) is necessary for social cognition. Functional
magnetic resonance imaging provided data for examining brain activations in 10 participants
viewing 48 photographs of social groups and 12 participants viewing objects; each picture
dependably represented one SCM quadrant. Analyses revealed mPFC activation to all social
groups except extreme (low-low) out-groups, who especially activated insula and amygdala, a
pattern consistent with disgust, the emotion predicted by the SCM. No objects, though rated
with the same emotions, activated the mPFC. This neural evidence supports the prediction
that extreme out-groups may be perceived as less than human, or dehumanized.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17100784
Caspi et al. (2003)
• Influence of life stress on depression: moderation by a
polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene.
• Abstract
• In a prospective-longitudinal study of a representative birth cohort,
we tested why stressful experiences lead to depression in some
people but not in others. A functional polymorphism in the
promoter region of the serotonin transporter (5-HT T) gene was
found to moderate the influence of stressful life events on
depression. Individuals with one or two copies of the short allele of
the 5-HT T promoter polymorphism exhibited more depressive
symptoms, diagnosable depression, and suicidality in relation to
stressful life events than individuals homozygous for the long allele.
This epidemiological study thus provides evidence of a gene-byenvironment interaction, in which an individual's response to
environmental insults is moderated by his or her genetic makeup.
• http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12869766
Fessler et al. (2005)
•
By motivating avoidance of contaminants, the experience of disgust guards against disease.
Because behavioral prophylaxis entails time, energy, and opportunity costs, Fessler and
Navarrete [Evol. Hum. Behav. 24 (2003) 406–417] hypothesized that disgustsensitivity is
adjusted as a function of immunocompetence. Changes in immune functioning over the
course of pregnancy offer an opportunity to test this notion. Relative to later stages, the first
trimester of pregnancy involves substantial suppression of the maternal immune response,
and both maternal and fetal vulnerability to pathogens are greatest during this phase; foodborne illnesses, in particular, pose a threat during the first trimester. Using a Web-based
survey of 496 pregnant women, we compared participants in the first trimester with those in
later stages of pregnancy. Results reveal heightened disgust sensitivity in the first trimester,
notably including disgustsensitivity in the food domain. This pattern is notsimply a
consequence of elevated nausea during the first trimester, as, although disgust sensitivity
and current level of nausea are correlated, first trimester women remain more easily
disgusted in the food domain even after controlling for the greater incidence of nausea.
These results provide preliminary support for the hypothesis that disgust sensitivity varies
during pregnancy in a manner that compensates for maternal and fetal vulnerability to
disease.
•
http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/anthro/faculty/fessler/pubs/Pregnancy&DisgustEHB2005.pdf
Curtiss (2004)
•
•
•
Disgust is an evolved psychological system for protecting organisms from infection
through disease avoidant behaviour. This ‘behavioural immune system’, present in
a diverse array of species, exhibits universal features that orchestrate hygienic
behaviour in response to cues of risk of contact with pathogens. However, disgust
is also a dynamic adaptive system. Individuals show variation in pathogen
avoidance associated with psychological traits like having a neurotic personality, as
well as a consequence of being in certain physiological states such as pregnancy or
infancy. Three specialized learning mechanisms modify the disgust response: the
Garcia effect, evaluative conditioning and the law of contagion. Hygiene behaviour
is influenced at the group level through social learning heuristics such as ‘copy the
frequent’. Finally, group hygiene is extended symbolically to cultural rules about
purity and pollution, which create social separations and are enforced as manners.
Cooperative hygiene endeavours such as sanitation also reduce pathogen
prevalence. Our model allows us to integrate perspectives from psychology,
ecology and cultural evolution with those of epidemiology and anthropology.
Understanding the nature of disease avoidance psychology at all levels of human
organization can inform the design of programmes to improve public health.
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/366/1563/389
http://articles.latimes.com/2004/feb/17/opinion/oe-curtis17
www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/mind/surveys/disgust
Recent Biological Findings
• http://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/28/health/sch
izophrenia-cause-synaptic-pruning-brainpsychiatry.html?mabReward=A1&_r=0
• http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/01/
160128133249.htm
• http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/01/
160128152147.htm
• http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/01/
160128074309.htm
• http://www.sciencedaily.com/news/mind_brain/
psychology/
Discussion
• Is biological evidence strong or weak? In what
ways? Which studies support?
• Do you think that behavior and thinking are
ultimately more influenced by nature or
nurture? Which studies support?
• If we interpret these findings as rather certain,
what should be put into place institutionally
(via governments, schools, hospitals, etc.)? By
whom?
Biological Bits
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rl2LwnaU
A-k&list=PLEE6E3B5E90A6A5AF
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iNPsDky1z
94&list=PLEE6E3B5E90A6A5AF
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rFAdlU2ET
jU&list=PLEE6E3B5E90A6A5AF