Transcript civil war

The Geneva Conventions
• In 1864, several states created an international
agreement that regulated acceptable behavior
during war and armed conflicts. Since then, the
Geneva Conventions have been amended in
1906, 1929, and 1949 as the nature of war and
warfare has changed.
• The agreements prohibit torture, rape, genocide,
mutilation, slavery, and other crimes against
humanity. The conventions also state that
prisoners of war must be treated humanely and
that civilians may not be used as hostages.
Civil War
• A civil war is a war fought within a single
country between or among different groups of
citizens who want to control the government
and do not recognize another group’s right to
rule. Civil wars are almost always total wars
because each side feels compelled to destroy
the enemy’s political support base.
• Spanish Civil War
Guerilla
• A guerrilla war is a war in which one or both
combatants use small, lightly armed militia
units rather than professional, organized
armies. Guerrilla fighters usually seek to
topple their government, often enjoying the
support of the people. These wars are often
very long but also tend to be successful for the
insurgents.
Guerrillas Versus Terrorists
• Although guerrillas have been known to practice
terrorism, guerrillas are not terrorists. Guerrillas fight
against their governments, particularly against the
military, in order to provoke a regime change.
• Terrorists, in contrast, target civilians and members of
the military in order to create a social and political
crisis of international proportions.
• Those fighting a guerrilla group might label their
opponents terrorists, and some terrorists may see
themselves as guerrillas.
Total war
• A total war is a war in which combatants use every
resource available to destroy the social fabric of the
enemy. Total wars are highly destructive and are
characterized by mass civilian casualties because
winning a total war often requires combatants to break
the people’s will to continue fighting.
• World Wars I and II were total wars, marked by the
complete destruction of the civilian economy and
society in many countries, including France, Germany,
the Soviet Union, Italy, Great Britain, and Japan.
Limited war
• A limited war is a war fought primarily between
professional armies to achieve specific political
objectives without causing widespread
destruction. Although the total of civilian
casualties may be high, combatants do not seek
to completely destroy the enemy’s social and
economic frameworks.
• The Persian Gulf War of 1990–1991 was a limited
war in which the United States and its allies
forcibly removed Iraqi troops from Kuwait.
Causes of WWI - MANIA
• Militarism
• Alliances
• Nationalism
• Imperialism
• Assassination
Militarism
• When a nation’s armed forces come to dominate a
country’s national policy
• It is also a glorification of the military and war itself
1910-1914 Increase in Defense
Expenditures
France
10%
Britain
13%
Russia
39%
Germany
73%
Nationalism
• Pride and patriotism in one’s nation
• In terms of WWI, nationalism became
aggressive and subsequently (because of this)
a major cause of international tension
• Independent nations desired dominance and
prestige and as these powers tried to
dominate each other in Europe, their rivalries
may be regarded as one of the causes of the
First World War
Imperialism
• Domination by one country over the political,
economic, or cultural life of another country
or region
• Due to the Industrial Revolution of the 1800s,
some European nations had a large portion of
the world under their control
Imperialism and Colonial Rivalries
• After 1870, the European nations began to acquire
colonies in Asia, Africa and the Pacific
• Colonial rivalry led to:
– strained relations among the European powers. In Africa,
all the European powers except Austria and Russia had
colonies there. Thus there were many clashes among
France, Britain, Germany and Italy.
– the formation and strengthening of alliances and ententes.
(indirectly)
– an intensification of the arms race.
– much hostility among the powers.
Assassination
• The “spark” that started WWI
• On June 28, 1914 Archduke Franz Ferdinand,
heir to the Austria Hungarian Throne was
assassinated by Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian
nationalist who believed that Bosnia should
belong to Serbia
The Point of No Return
• Austria blamed Serbia for Ferdinand’s death
and declared war on Serbia.
• Germany pledged their support for Austria Hungary.
• Russia pledged their support for Serbia.
• Germany declares war on Russia
• France pledges their support for Russia
• Germany declares war on France
• Germany invades Belgium on the way to
France
• Great Britain supports Belgium and declares
war on Germany
Treaty of Versailles
Rise of Italian fascism
Rise of Hitler and the Nazi Party
Great Depression
Japanese expansionism
Anti-communism
Appeasement
Militarism
Nationalism
U.S. isolationism
Maps
Treaty of Versailles
After Germany lost WWI, the winning nations drafted a
treaty to address issues such as territorial adjustments,
reparations, armament restrictions, war guilt and the
League of Nations.
The treaty punished Germany and left bitter feelings.
Germany was forced to accept all the blame for the war
and pay millions in reparations to Britain and France.
Italy was disappointed that it was denied territory
promised by Britain and France.
British
Prime
Minister
George
1914
1919
Italian
Prime
Minister
Orlando
French Prime
Minister
Clemenceau
“Big Four”
U.S.
President
Wilson
The Rise of Fascism in Italy
Fascism is a totalitarian
form of government
which:
Glorifies the state
Has one leader and
one party
All aspects of society
are controlled by the
government
No opposition or
protests are tolerated
Propaganda and
censorship are widely
practiced
Benito Mussolini came to
power in 1922 and helped
found the political ideology of
fascism. He sided with the Axis
powers in 1940.
In Germany, depression, unemployment and
hard times led to a dramatic increase in votes
for Hitler and the Nazi Party.
Election date
Votes in
millions
Share
May 20, 1928
0.81
2.6%
September 14, 1930
6.41
18.3%
July 31, 1932
13.75
37.3%
November 6, 1932
11.74
33.1%
March 5, 1933
17.28
43.9%
Voting for Hitler’s party increased as
unemployment rates rose
Worldwide Economic Depression
After WWI many European
economies were unstable.
The boom in the U.S.
throughout the 1920s helped
sustain worldwide trade.
The 1929 stock market crash
in the U.S. and the resulting
Great Depression spread
throughout the world. U.S.
restrictive tariff policies
worsened the depression.
As economies plummeted and
unemployment rose, many
people turned to powerful
leaders and governments who
promised success through
military buildup and the
conquest of territory.
German breadlines
Japanese children eating
radish roots during famine
Anti-Communism
Under communism, all
means of production are
controlled by the
government, as are property,
the media, and all other
aspects of society.
The 1930s saw the rise of
many totalitarian regimes;
but most people chose
fascism over communism.
Hitler exploited people’s
fear of a communist takeover
in Germany to rise to power
in 1933.
A Battle for Germany: Nazi
anti-communist book from
1933
Appeasement
Appeasement is the act of
giving in to an enemy’s
demands in hopes of
avoiding further conflict.
In 1938, Hitler demanded
that Czechoslovakia cede the
Sudetenland to Germany. He
claimed that the German
population living there was
being mistreated.
The British and French
prime ministers agreed to
Hitler’s demands without
consulting Czechoslovakian
leaders, in the hopes that
this would avoid a war in
Europe.
Militarism
The glorification of
war, in which a nation
strengthens its military
and stockpiles weapons
in preparation for war.
An important
aspect of militarism is
that the glorification of
war is incorporated into
all levels of society,
including education of
the nation’s youth.
Hitler Youth group
Militaristic societies
have existed
throughout human
history.
Ancient Sparta is an example of a
militaristic society
Nationalism
Nationalism is the
belief in the
superiority of one’s
own nation over all
others.
In the extreme, it
can lead to major
conflicts between
nations.
Hitler, Mussolini,
and Japan’s Tojo each
touted their nation’s
ability to dominate all
others in the years
leading up to WWII.
Nazi flag, Italian fascist logo,
Japanese flag
American Isolationism
The failure of peace
efforts such as the Kellogg
Briand Treaty during the
1920s disillusioned many
Americans about
international involvement.
The U.S. was in a major
depression throughout the
1930s and was mostly
concerned with its own
problems.
Conflict in Europe
seemed distant, and the
U.S. tried to remain
neutral. This policy
weakened the European
democracies.
The Nye Committee held
congressional hearings in the
mid-1930s, concluding that the
U.S. was tricked into entering
WWI by arms manufacturers
and Allied propaganda.
Historical debate of Japan’s
responsibility
Japan as aggressor
• Japan planned the war from
1930’s
• Japan’s willingness to
negotiate was a plan to
keep enemy off guard
• Aggressor- aim to conquer
Asia
• Japanese declaration of war
blamed US
Japan as imperial power
• European style imperialism
• Japan didn’t plan for war,
just took too many risks
• Japan was creating a sphere
of influence (like US did in
Latin America)
• Japan fought a defensive
war- triggered by US
embargoes. They had to act
Immediate cause of war in Pacific
US wants Japan
out of China
Tripartite Pact
Japan divided
• 1940 US bans exports of scrap iron to Japan
• Japan must import raw materials to sustain war (heavily dependent on
US)
• Germany, Italy, Japan- “New order”, come to defense
• US gives loans to China, political parties eliminated in Japan
• Attack USSR or South-east Asia? (Germany attacks USSR, so they go
south)
• Leads to US, Britain, Netherlands embargo
• Japan will run out of oil= Pearl Harbor
The Spanish Civil War
1936-1939
The Spanish Civil War
• The two sides were:
– The Nationalists (a loose coalition of right wing
groups, including Army high command, the
Church, the landowners, monarchists, and the
Falange (fascist party)
– The Republicans (looser coalition or left wing
groups, including socialists, trade unionists,
communists, anarchists and moderate liberals)
The Causes of the War
• Profound cause: long period of decline since
the great days of he Spanish Empire
• Spain had made little progress, lost her
empire, and fallen behind in the
industrialization process
• Deep division in Spanish society
– Landowners vs. Peasants
The Causes of the War
• Church vs. Anti-Clerical movements:
• The Church had enormous power in Spain and
was opposed to social reform, this led to
groups that sought to reduce the Church’s
influence
The Causes of the War
• Conservatives vs. Liberals
• There was a lack of a political middle, and
extremists elements were increasingly popular
• Massive divisions between countryside and
towns
The Causes of the War
• The Spanish army had a tradition of interfering
in politics
• Long standing tradition of violence in Spanish
politics, and democracy had never really been
established (therefore parties tried to reserve
election results through violence)
The Causes of the War
• There was a desire for autonomy in several
regions of Spain. Conservatives saw this as a
threat to Spain
• Anarchism was a powerful force in Spain
• Army concern at the possibility of a
communist takeover
The Causes of the War
• The weakness of the Government of the
Second Republic (1930-1936), its failure to
carry out reforms, and to act against those
that were plotting against the Republic
• It also failed to maintain law and order
• The assassination of the right wing leader
Calvo Sotelo in July 1936
The Main Characteristics of the
Spanish Civil War
• The conflict was extremely brutal
• There was widespread foreign intervention
(due to the conflict -- seen as a struggle
between right and left)
• Nationalists received support from Germany
and Italy
• Republicans obtained aid from USSR and
occasionally from France, as well as foreign
volunteers and the International Brigades
The Main Characteristics of the
Spanish Civil War
• It has been characterized as an ideological war
• The loose coalitions developed into strongly
idealistic as excesses polarized opinion
• The war was never clear cut
• Only the ideological divide between foreign
supporters was clear
– USSR vs. Germany & Italy
The Main Characteristics of the
Spanish Civil War
•
•
•
•
It was seen as a ‘curtain raiser’ for WWII
First major use of air power
Bombing of civilian targets
Formations of armored vehicles (to predict
Hitler’s Blitzkrieg)
• It is claimed that it was a war between
professional soldiers and armed workers
(although gradually order and discipline was
instituted amongst the Republicans
The Main Characteristics of the
Spanish Civil War
• This war saw the use of propaganda to
overcome resistance and terrify population
• It brought profound social changes in its wake
(especially in Republican held areas)
The Effects of the War
• Tremendous loss if life (executions continued
after the victory of the nationalists)
• Material losses were great (this was important
since Spain had been backward before the war
already -- the Republicans sent all the gold
reserves to the USSR for safekeeping
The Effects of the War
• Franco’s regime marked the end of
democracy for the next 40 years
• Agriculture remained backward and the
landowners in control
• The Church became more powerful (in return
for support for Franco’s regime)
The Effects of the War
• Regionalism was suppressed, and the state
highly centralized
• Censorship was introduced
• No attempts at reconciliation, reconstruction
• Cultural life suffered due to the
authoritarianism of Franco
• High degree of state control led to corruption
The Effects of the War
• Franco’s foreign supporters wanted
compensation
• Franco had to provide Germany with much
needed resources
• Spain became diplomatically isolated
• The reality of the Corporate State was the
Fascists sides with employers and this system
did little to represent the interests of the
workers
• This system was effectively only a disguise for
exploitation of labour
• Propaganda was used to claim successes, but
remained propaganda
• Successes included improvements in public
transport, success in the campaign against the
Mafia…
• The one major success was the ending of the
conflict between State and Church (the
establishment of the Vatican as an
independent state)
Algerian War 1954-1962
• Historical Background:
• 1830: France conquers Algeria (Empire, Raw
Materials)
• 1830-1870: Colonization
– French Populate Algeria
– French Political Control over Algerian Majority (Mélange)
• 1870-1940: Slow But Minimal Assimilation
– Many Muslims Receive French Education/Citizenship
– Many Serve France in WWI (Exposed to Pan-Arab
Movement)
– Demand Changes, But Ignored
Historical Background
• World War II
– France Conquered; Free France Fights Under De Gaulle
– Algerians Offer Assistance, But Demand Full Citizenship
Following War
– Impossible for French to Comply – Would Make them A
Minority in Their Own Territory (Israeli/Palestinian
Parallel)
• Post War
– French Seek to Reclaim Prestige by Reasserting Colonial
Control
– Indochina Resists (1946-1954)
– Algerian Nationalists, Including FLN, Take Note of
Vietnam and Press for Independence
FLN Strategy
• Did Not Want to Alienate Algerian Moderates (Elites and
General Population), But Convince Them of Righteousness
• Wanted to Frighten and Impress French Government &
European Population in Algeria, But Not Elicit Crushing
Backlash
• Wanted to Impress Arab States, But Not Be So Violent and
Random As to Make Aid Politically Infeasible Due to
International Costs
• In the End, The Tactical Operations of The Terrorist Campaign
Eventually Satisfied the Most Important of These Strategic
Objectives, But Not Without a Great Deal of Trial and Error
and Numerous Nuanced Changes in Strategic Approach
The French Response To The FLN
• French Strategy and Goals:
• Convince Algerians and Metropolitan French That French
Rule in Algeria is Advantageous
• Convince French-Algerian Government That Rule From Paris
is Advantageous
• Convince Algerian Nationalists That French Rule is
Advantageous, or Eliminate Them
• Convince International Audiences That French Rule in Algeria
is Better for Algeria Than Algerian Rule
• French Algeria – Dualist Society:
• Settlers – White, Urban, White-Collar Entrepreneurs
• Algerians: African/Arab, Rural, Laborers
The French Response
• Tension Between French Gov’t (Paris) and French Settlers in
Algiers Culminates in Military Leadership in Algiers in May
1958 (Massu as Gov.-Gen.) – Treasonous
• De Gaulle Reassumes Power in Paris (Collapse of 4th
Republic): Wants to Reassert Parisian Control Over Algeria,
But Proposes Algerian Self-Determination
– FLN, Almost Defeated, Sees This as Surrender
• Massu Recalled as Governor-General in 1960; Settlers
Forcibly Take Over Government in Algiers
• Bedlam Turns Met France Entirely Against French Algerians
(Manifesto of 121) – Material Support for FLN
The French Response
• 1960-61: De Gaulle Intensifies Campaign for
Separate Algeria – Army Radicals Turn Against Him
in Attempted Coup (April 1961)
• Putsch Fails; Army Loses Willingness to Maintain
Control Over Algeria – War Essentially Over
• More Radical Algerian Group (OAS) Begins Terrorist
Attacks Against French Algerians AND FLN – Does
Not Impact FLN, But Forces French Citizens To Leave
Algeria Once Conflict Over
• Ceasefire in March 1962
• Independence in July 1962