Transcript Chapter 2 : Cognitive Neuroscience

Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Chapter 13: Human and
Artificial Intelligence
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
What Do You Consider Intelligence?
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Intelligence Is…
• Capacity to learn from experience
• Ability to adapt to different contexts
• The use of metacognition to enhance
learning
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Emotional Intelligence
• Mayer & Salovey (1997)
“The capacity to reason about emotions, and of
emotions to enhance thinking. It includes the
abilities to accurately perceive emotions, to
access and generate emotions so as to assist
thought, to understand emotions and emotional
knowledge, and to reflectively regulate
emotions so as to promote emotional and
intellectual growth”
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Social Intelligence
• Ability to get along with others
• Knowledge of social matters
• Insight into moods or underlying
personality traits of others
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Artificial Intelligence
• The computational part of the ability to
achieve goals in the world
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Historical Trends
• Emphasize psychophysical abilities
– Galton
– Examine relationships of sensory abilities
• Emphasize on judgment
– Binet (1904)
– Identify children needing special instruction
– Compared child’s abilities to what the
average child at that age could do
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Historical Trends
•
Terman (1900s)
– Created an English version of Binet’s
test (called it the Stanford-Binet)
– Created the intelligence quotient (IQ):
divide mental age by chronological age
then multiply by 100
– Became the first modern “intelligence”
test
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Types of items on the Stanford-Binet
Age
4
9
Task
Fill in the missing word when asked, "A puppy is a
dog, a kitten is a _______.
Answers correctly when the examiner says,
“Yesterday, the scientist went into the swamp to
capture a dinosaur. What is foolish about that?
Fills in the missing words of sentences like "The
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rivers are flooding because…."
Can describe the difference between happiness and
Adult
elation, and virtue and morality.
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Wechsler Intelligence Scales
• Wechsler created scales for adults,
children, and preschoolers
• Yield 3 scores
– Verbal score
– Performance score
– Overall score
• Most widely used intelligence test
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Types of Items on the Wechsler
Verbal Scales
Performance Scales
Information
Picture completion
Digit span
Picture arrangement
Vocabulary
Block design
Arithmetic
Digit symbol
Comprehension
Object assembly
Similarities
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Measurement or Process?
• Measurement structure
– Identify most relevant factors
• Process emphasis
– Identify and examine the speed and
accuracy of mental manipulations
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Nature, Nurture, or Both?
• Is intelligence genetic?
• Is intelligence acquired?
• Is intelligence a combination of both?
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Factor Analysis
• Primary method used to describe intelligence
•
•
structure
Correlations among many dependent variables
are examined with the goal of discovering
something about the nature of the factors that
affect them
How many different factors are needed to
explain the pattern of relationships among these
variables?
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Factor Analysis Matrix
Paragraph comprehension
Sentence completion
Word meaning
Counting dots
Identifying shapes
Multiplication
Paper folding
Block patterns
Series completion
Reading Numerical Visual
0.84
0.10
0.06
0.86
-0.05 -0.01
0.81
0.04 -0.02
0.08
0.91
0.04
0.02
0.82
0.10
-0.24
0.87 -0.02
0.05
0.20
0.77
-0.03
-0.01
0.65
0.02
0.04
0.57
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Number of Factors in the Structure of
Intelligence
• Spearman says two
• Thurstone says seven
• Guilford says 150
• Cattell, Vernon, and Carroll propose
hierarchical models
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Spearman’s “g” Factor
• Two-factor theory of intelligence
– All intellective functioning was due to an
overall mental ability – “g”
– Accompanied by specific abilities for
differing mental tasks
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Thurstone’s 7 Primary Mental Abilities
• Verbal comprehension
• Verbal fluency
• Inductive reasoning
• Spatial visualization
• Number
• Memory
• Perceptual speed
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Guilford
• SOI Model
– Structure of
Intelligence
– Each cube represents
an intersection of
operations, products
and contents to
create 150
components of
intelligence
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Cattell’s Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence
• Fluid intelligence
– Ability to reason and use information
– Peaks approximately at age 20
• Crystallized intelligence
– Acquired skill and learned knowledge
– Continues to increase into old age
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Carroll’s Three-Strata Model
Stratum III: General
g
Stratum II: Broad abilities
fluid
crystalized
memory
Visual
perception
Stratum I: Narrow abilities
Auditory
perception
Listening
retrieval
Perceptual
speed
Cognitive Processing
speed
speed
Word
fluency
Word
recognition
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Historical Trends & Intelligence
• In the past, focus was on the product,
•
•
identify aptitudes, measure, and create
models based on data
During 1960’s & 1970’s conceptualization
changed to what are the processes involved?
Information processing models focus on the
processes that are involved in intelligence
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Information Processing & Intelligence
• Inspection time
– How long a stimuli has to be viewed
before an accurate judgment can be made
– How quickly a person gives their answer is
irrelevant, participants are encouraged to
take their time
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Inspection Time Demonstration
*
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Inspection Time and IQ
• Nettlebeck & Lally (1976)
– First to note the relationship
• Nettlebeck (1987)
– Inspection time accounts for 25% of IQ
variance (r = -.5)
– The higher the IQ, the less stimulus time
needed to accurately inspect the stimuli
– Big issue now is direction of causation
between the two variables
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Intelligence and Other Processes
• The speed at which we process thought
can explain why one individual is more
intelligent than another
• Choice Reaction Time
– Jensen
• Lexical Access Speed
– Hunt
– Speed of word retrieval
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Working Memory & Intelligence
• Being able to store and manipulate
information in working memory is
related to level of intelligence
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Componential Analysis
• This approach involves identifying the steps in complex
•
information-processing tasks and seeing how each
process contributes to the decision
Sternberg’s componential analysis on solving analogies
Red : Stop :: Green : ____
Graceful: Clumsy :: late : _____
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–
–
–
Encode - Identify each term of the problem
Inference - Discover rule between 1st two terms
Mapping - Map rule to second set of terms
Application - Apply relationship and generate final term
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Sternberg’s Findings
• Measured amount reaction time for
each step
• Found more intelligent participants
took longer to encode, but less time to
complete the remaining steps
• Global versus local planning
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Contextualist View of Intelligence
• Culture and definition of intelligence
are intertwined
• Differs from one culture to another
• Critical in one culture may be
unimportant in another culture
• Measurement of intelligence will be
influenced by culture
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Culture Differences
• Western cultures view intelligence as a
means for individuals to devise
categories and to engage in rational
debate
• Eastern cultures see it as a way for
members of a community to recognize
contradiction and complexity and to
play their social roles successfully
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Evidence Supporting Cultural Influences
• Kpelle tribe in Africa
– Prefer functional sorting
– In Western society, seen as less intelligent
– Westerners prefer hierarchical sorting
• Italian Americans’ IQ study
– First generation median = 87
– Ceci (1996) Italian Americans scores were
slightly above average (above 100)
– Cultural assimilation is the explanation
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
• Eight types of abilities that are independent
of one another
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–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Visual / Spatial Intelligence
Musical Intelligence
Verbal Intelligence
Logical/Mathematical Intelligence
Interpersonal Intelligence
Intrapersonal Intelligence
Bodily / Kinesthetic Intelligence
Naturalist Intelligence
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Gardner’s Theory
• Is modular, each type is independent of
another
• Allows for existence of savants
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
• Emphasizes how 3 types of abilities work
together to create intelligent behavior
Triarchic Theory
Analytical
Compare,
Evaluate &
Analyze
Creative
Practical
Insights,
Dealing with
Synthesis,
Everyday tasks
Adapting in unique
Relating to world
situations
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
• Intelligence involves not merely adapting to one’s
•
•
environment but in some cases modifying the
environment or selecting another
Intelligences are developing abilities not fixed
characteristics of an individual; Traditional
definitions conceptualize intelligence to remain
essentially constant throughout an adult life
Intelligence means adapting using your strengths
and improving or compensating for your
weaknesses
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Artificial Intelligence
• The Turing test
– Used to refer to a proposal made by
Turing (1950) as a way of dealing with
the question whether machines can think
– Can an observer who has a conversation
with a computer and a human figure out
which conversationalist is the computer?
– Computer passes Turing test if the person
cannot
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Computer Programs Better than Humans
• Deep Blue and Chess
– 1,000,000,000,000 positions/sec
– 100 - 200 billion moves considered
– Able to evaluate moves
• Beat world champion Kasparov in
1997 match
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Psychotherapy AI
•
ELIZA
•
PARRY
– Weizenbaum (1966) created this program to engage in a dialogue
imitative of the style favored in Rogerian psychotherapy
– The program can successfully emulate human conversation to a
degree that humans often assumed they were communicating
remotely over teletype with another human
– ELIZA's technique of responding to keyword-matching
demonstrated the plausibility of natural language understanding by
computers
– Colby (1963) created a computer simulation of a paranoid human
– Psychologists reliably judged PARRY's interactive output as being
paranoid schizophrenic and were unable to distinguish transcripts
of a session with PARRY from that of a session originating from a
human patient
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Expert Systems
• Telephone network maintenance
• Credit evaluation
• Tax planning
• Detection of insider securities trading
• Mineral exploration
• Irrigation and pest management
• Predicting failure of diesel engines
• Medical diagnosis
• Class selection for students
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Limitations of Expert Systems
• Can handle only narrow domains
• Do not possess common
sense/intuition
• Have a limited ability to learn
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 13
Summary
• To date, no computer AI can match all
dimensions of human intelligence
• For algorithmic problems, computers
can perform faster, however humans
still write the programming