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Chapter 1
Theories and Methods
in Social Psychology
The Social Psychological
Approach

Social psychology is the scientific
study of how people think about,
influence, and relate to others
The Social Psychological
Approach

focuses on the interpersonal (rather
than the societal or individual) level
of analysis
Historical Roots of Social
Psychology
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Three major perspectives have
influenced social psychology:
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Psychoanalytic Theory
Behaviorism
Gestalt Psychology
Theories in Social Psychology


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Motivational Theories
Learning Theories
Cognitive Theories
Decision-Making Theories
Interdependence Theories
Sociocultural Theories

A sociocultural perspective
emphasizes how behavior is
influenced by cultural values, social
norms, and social roles.
Sociocultural Theories
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Cultures differ in the relative
emphasis they give to individualism
versus collectivism.
Evolutionary Social Psychology

applies the principles of evolution and
natural selection to the
understanding of human behavior and
social life.
Social Psychological Theories
Today

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combines and integrates different
theoretical traditions.
“middle-range theories,” or models to
explain specific aspects of human
behavior, are emphasized.
Research Methods

scientific methodology and minimizing
bias are emphasized.
Four Goals of Research
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Description
Causal Analysis
Theory Building
Application
Selecting Research Participants
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Ideal samples are representative of
the population from which they come.
Random sampling is the best way to
get a representative sample.
Biases in Research Samples
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College students are overrepresented due to convenience.
Males are over-represented in older
research.
Ethnic minority groups are underrepresented.
Correlational versus
Experimental Designs
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There are two basic research
designs: correlational and
experimental.
Correlational Research
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Observes the relationship between
two or more variables
Advantages of Correlational
Designs
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Enable researchers to study problems
in which intervention is impossible or
unethical
Efficient: allow researchers to
collect more information and test
more relationships
Disadvantages of Correlational
Designs
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Do not provide clear-cut evidence of
cause-and-effect
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reverse-causality problem
third-variable problem
Experimental Research
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The researcher creates two or more
conditions that differ from each
other in clearly specified ways.
Individuals are randomly assigned to
conditions.
Their reactions are measured.
Variables in Experiments
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The independent variable is the
presumed cause and is manipulated by
the researcher.
Variables in Experiments
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The dependent variable is the effect
that is measured.
Variables in Experiments
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The operational definition of a
variable is the specific procedure or
operations used to manipulate or
measure it.
Random Assignment

Random assignment is crucial because
it allows one to infer that differences
between groups are due solely to the
experimental conditions.
Table 1-1
CORRELATIONAL
EXPERIMENTAL
INDEPENDENT
VARIABLE
Varies naturally
Controlled by researcher
RANDOM
ASSIGNMENT
No
Yes
UNAMBIGUOUS
CAUSALITY
Usually not
Yes
EXPLORATORY
Often
Usually not
THEORY TESTING Often
Usually
TESTS MANY
RELATIONSHIPS
Usually not
Usually
Field versus Laboratory
Settings
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Field research examines behavior in
its natural habitat
Laboratory research is done in an
artificial situation.
Advantages of Laboratory
Research
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maximizes internal validity
more convenient and less costly than
field research
Advantages of Field Research
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Maximizes external validity
Allows researchers to study powerful
situations that cannot be studied in
the lab.
Minimizes suspicion by participants
Table 1-2
LABORATORY
FIELD
CONTROL OVER
VARIABLES
High
Low
RANDOM
ASSIGNMENT
Almost always
Seldom
CONVENIENCE
Usually high
Usually low
REALISM
Low
High
IMPACT OF
INDEPENDENT
VARIABLES
Tends to be lower
Tends to be higher
SUSPICION AND
BIAS
Tends to be higher
Tends to be lower
EXTERNAL
VALIDITY
Low
High
Methods of Data Collection
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Self-Report
Observational Research
Archival Research
Bias in Research
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Two kinds of bias are troublesome in
social psychology: experimenter bias
and subject bias
Experimenter Bias
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Subtle cues from the researchers
may influence participants’ behavior.
Solutions
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“blind” research assistants
Standardize research procedures
Subject Bias
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The mere fact of knowing that one is
being studied may alter one’s
behavior.
Solutions
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unobtrusive measures
don’t tell participants the goals or
hypotheses
Replication
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No one study is ever perfect, so
results should be replicated
Conceptual replications should be
conducted in addition to exact
replications.
Research Ethics
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American Psychological Association
ethical guidelines for research
Institutional Review Boards.
Three Important Ethical
Principles
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Informed Consent
Debriefing
Minimal Risk