Transcript Earth Science Classes

Earth Science Classes
Course Requirements, Syllabus,
and Review Topics by unit
Contact Information
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I can be reached: by calling the
school (718) 463-3111
My email is
[email protected]
My website address is
www.TeachPhysics.com
My webpage on the school
website is:
www.QueensAcademyHS.com
Classroom Rules
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Be on time for class – that means in
your seat when the bell rings
Be prepared for class with writing
materials – pen and paper
No hats or do-rags in class
No electronics in class including cell
phones
Be respectful of others
Absolutely no food in class
What is needed for this
class?
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A pen or pencil and a notebook
everyday.
A copy of the Earth Science
reference tables (supplied)
These are available in languages
besides English – just ask
A binder to hold handouts, class
work and home works.
You will also need an inexpensive
calculator capable of basic arithmetic
for homework assignments.
Grades in Earth Science
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35%
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35%
10%
20%
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Exams, quizzes,
mid-terms and finals
Class participation
Homework
Laboratory Activities
Grading policies
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Rubrics show student performance
levels.
To inform students of the expectations I
have for them, and to make grading more
objective, I use rubrics extensively in
determining grades. This lets students see
precisely what areas of a task they were
successful on, and which areas need
improvement. Rubrics are passed out to
students before assignments so they know
what is expected of them when they are
given the task.
Tests are worth 35%
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These include quizzes, open book and take-home
tests, and full-period exams, including the mid-term
and final. Generally, to keep the values of these
assessments proportional to their length and
importance, I make each question worth 1 point. In
this way a short quiz with 10 questions is worth half
as much as a test with 20 questions. Full-period
exams have some questions that require a more
lengthy answer than a multiple-choice question and
may have be worth two or three points while the
entire exam is worth 40-50 points. To increase the
significance of the mid-term and final, these are
worth 100 points each. Make-up tests are worth
only partial credit unless the student presented a
valid excuse for the absence. Make-up tests are
worth 65% of the original test value.
Full-Period exams
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A full-period test is administered
every 3 weeks.
Tests are returned the next day
and we will go over the exam
during class.
Tests are posted on the website
well in advance of the test date
for you to preview.
Homework - 10% of your grade.
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Homework values are calculated in a
similar manner as tests with each
question being worth one point. In
this way, more lengthy assignments
have a higher value. In some cases
there are questions worth more than
one point because they involve a
more lengthy answer, multiple parts,
or a mathematical calculation.
Class participation is 35%
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This grade comes from attendance, class work, and
participation in discussions. An attendance credit is
given to each student. Students receive three points
for coming to class on-time each day. This is
reduced to one point if they enter the classroom
after the bell rings, and zero points if they come in
more than 20 minutes late. Students who present a
valid excuse for their absence receive the three
points for the day. Class work consists of reading
and writing, and answering questions from the text,
review book and worksheets. These are worth one
point per question. Students who actively participate
in class discussions are given additional points.
Laboratory exercises- 20%
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Lab exercises are graded on a pass-fail
basis and are worth either ten points or
zero points. Incomplete labs are worth 0;
labs must be complete to earn credit.
Make-up labs are worth only partial credit.
If the missing lab is made up during the
marking period in which we performed it,
the value is eight points. In the following
marking period it is worth seven points,
afterwards, only six points. Students have
to achieve a lab average of 65% and
complete no less than 600 minutes of
hands-on laboratory exercises to pass lab.
What is Earth Science?
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Astronomy
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During this portion of the course, we will
learn about our solar system, the Milky
Way galaxy, stars, planets, moons,
comets and asteroids. We will also talk
about the beginning of the universe, an
event referred to as the big bang. We
will discuss methods of determining
where we are in the universe using a
coordinate system. This section also
includes how and why the Earth rotates
on its axis, revolves around the sun in
its orbit, and the causes for the seasons.
Energy
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The study of energy will include
electromagnetic, potential, kinetic,
and thermal energy. We will learn the
difference between temperature and
heat energy, and how energy is
transferred and transformed. We will
also discuss changes of state for
matter, and how energy is involved.
The Earth’s 2 sources of energyinternal and external will be
discussed.
Meteorology
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Meteorology includes factors that are
related to weather and climate.
Some of these include temperature,
moisture, pressure, wind and
precipitation. We will discuss
weather patterns and their causes,
global warming, and long term
weather patterns known as climate.
We will learn how meteorologists are
able to predict and forecast the
weather. This section also includes
the water cycle.
Geology
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Geology covers the different types of rocksminerals, sedimentary, igneous and
metamorphic. Geology explains the
processes that create and wear down
rocks. This section of the course will also
cover earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanoes
and plate tectonics. We will learn some of
the characteristics of rocks and minerals,
and identification techniques. The last
section of geology deals with ways of
determining the age of the Earth using
fossils, radioactive isotopes, and a brief
examination of the Earth's 4.6 billion year
history.
Reviewing Earth science
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To help students review for
classroom tests and the
Regents exams, I post the
actual tests online. Review
sheets are also used.
Vocabulary and concepts are
presented.
 The following slides contain a
copy of these review sheets.
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Topic 1- Introduction to Earth's
Changing Environment
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Universe-All matter, time, energy and space that exists.
Observation-The perception of some aspect of the environment made
with one or more of the human senses-sight, hearing, touch, taste, or smell
Instrument- A human-made device that extends the human senses
beyond their normal limits. instruments increase the range of observations
e.g. microscope, telescope, and quantify (give a quantity to) an
observation. Example it is not a small amount of water, it is 37ml of water.
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Inference- An inference is an interpretation of an observation. A mental
process that proposes causes, conclusions or explanations for what has
been observed. An inference cannot be tested. It is based on our
observation and also our past experiences.
Prediction- A type of inference about the conditions and behavior of the
environment in the future. Predictions can be tested even though they may
not be – they must have the ability to be tested to be a prediction
Classification- A group of similar observations and inferences, a
taxonomy. Example- Birds – flightless birds – flightless, aquatic birds- from
general to specific.
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Measurement- A means of expressing an observation with greater
accuracy or precision. Measurements include units. Basic units in the SI
system include the meter for length, the kilogram for mass, and the second
for time.
Accuracy- How close a measurement comes to a true or accepted value.
Example: You measure the force of gravity to be 9.6 m/s^2, since the
accepted value is 9.806, your percent deviation is only 2%. You are 98%
accurate.
Precision-The ability to repeat a measurement and obtain nearly the
same results each time. This may depend on the calibration of the
measuring instruments. Example: You measure the force of gravity 3
times and get 8.9, 9.4 and 10.6 m/s^2. These readings are not precisenone are close to each other. Another time you take 3 measurements and
get 9.2, 9.1, and 9.3. These readings are not accurate, but they are
precise. Lastly, you make 3 measurements and get 9.6, 9.8, and 9.7.
These readings are both accurate and precise.
Mass- The amount of matter in an object, the number and size of its
atoms. The more atoms and the larger the atoms, the more mass. Mass
does not vary by location as weight does. Example: A student has a mass
of 65kg. That is the mass of the student on Earth or the moon. The weight
of the student on the moon would be 1/6 his/her weight on earth. Weight
is the effect of gravity on a given mass.
Volume- The amount of space that an object occupies is its volume.
rectangular objects we multiply length, width and height. Irregular shaped
objects – we use the water displacement method with a graduated
cylinder.
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Percent deviation- No measurement is perfect, they contain some error.
Percent deviation is the difference from the accepted value divided by the
accepted value multiplied by 100. Example: You measure the mass of an
object with an accepted mass of 125gm, but you get 127.5gm. The
percent deviation. is: [(127.5gm-125gm) / 125gm] *100=
[2.5gm/125gm]*100=2% Find the formula on the front cover of the
reference tables.
Density- The concentration of matter in an object and the ratio of the
object’s mass to its volume. High mass with low volume equals high
density. Low mass or high volume equals low density. Mass/ volume =
density units are kg/cubic meters. Formula on the ESRT
Density is constant for objects made of a uniform material – no matter
what size piece you have. density is how things will sort themselves out –
always with the most dense object on the bottom and the least dense on
top. Density is responsible for layering and motion.
Rate of change- How much a measurable aspect changes over time is
the rate of change. Example: It is 60 degrees out when you wake up. Two
hours later, it is 70 degrees. The rate of change is 70degrees-60 degrees)
/ 2 hours or 5 degrees per hour. Formula on the ESRT
Cyclic change- Changes that occur with a regular or predictable cycle.
Ex. tides, night and day, the seasons, full moons, and many more.
Natural hazard- A non-human situation that may threaten life. Ex:
Asteroids, blizzards, earthquakes, floods, tsunamis, hurricanes,
thunderstorms, tornados, and volcanoes.
Interface- A boundary between 2 regions with different properties.
Example At the beach where the shore meets the water is the land-water
interface.
Dynamic equilibrium- The balancing of opposing forces. Example: The
level of Lake Erie remains nearly constant, it is in dynamic equilibrium
because the water that flows out into the Niagara River is replaced by
water that flows into it from the Detroit River.
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Natural resources-Materials and energy sources found in the
environment. Many natural resources especially fossil fuels (coal, oil and
gas) are considered non-renewable. They will renew themselves, it just
takes hundreds of millions of years!
Pollution- A concentration of any substance or energy that adversely
affects humans and the environment. Example: An electric plant
discharges water that it uses for cooling. The increased temperature of
the water around the plant kills fish and plant life around the plant.
Amount of error – The difference between your measurement and the
accepted value, always a positive number (absolute value), contains units.
Example I measure 78 cm but the actual length is 80 cm. the amount of
error is 2 cm.
Scientific notation – a way of expressing numbers without writing a lot of
zeros. the zeros are replaced with a times 10 to some power, the power is
how many zeros were replaced. Example 78,000 – 7.8 x 104 In scientific
notation, only a single digit is ever written on the left side of the decimal
place.
Average or mean – a number which is between the highest and lowest
number in a list. Found by adding up the numbers in the list and dividing
by how many numbers are in the list.
Graphing- dependent variable, the thing that changes as the experiment
progresses always goes on the y-axis. Independent variable, always on
the x-axis. Graphs include ALL of the following: a title, a label on each axis
including units (Note: the units are not the label), a layout that is linear and
uses 90% of the graph paper (not bunched up in a corner or running off the
paper), a line-of-best-fit that shows the trend of the data (not necessarily a
connect the dots line)
Topic 2-Measuring Earth
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Atmosphere- The layer of gasses that surrounds Earth above the oceans
and land. Contains for sub-layers. from the ground going up: troposphere,
stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. The ozone layer is in the
stratosphere and protects life on Earth from harmful UV radiation. As
altitude increases in the atmosphere, temperature both increases and
decreases as various layers either absorb radiation or do not absorb
radiation. Most of the atmosphere (78%) is composed of nitrogen gas, not
oxygen.
Coordinate system- A system for determining the coordinates of a point.
Maps use latitude and longitude to accomplish this.
Contour lines- These are isolines that connect points of equal elevation.
Contour interval – the vertical distance between contour lines on a
topographic map.
Crust- The upper portion or top layer of the lithosphere.
Degrees – parts of a circle. a complete circle has 360 degrees. Degrees
are broken into 60 smaller parts called minutes and minutes each contain
60 equal parts called seconds. Thus a latitude or longitude may be written
as 45° 31’ 58” indicating 45 degrees, 31 minutes, 58 seconds.
Earth’s interior- Everything between Earth’s crust and the center of the
earth. From the center of the Earth to the crust these layers are: inner
core, outer core, stiffer mantle, asthenosphere( plastic mantle), lithosphere
and crust.
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Elevation- The vertical distance or height above sea
level. This is shown with different colors on a relief map
and with contour lines on a topographic map.
Equator- The halfway point between the north and south
poles. The reference point for measuring latitude; has a
latitude of 0°
Field- Any region of space that has some measurable
value of a given quantity at every point. Example:
Magnetic or gravitational fields.
Gradient- The rate of change from place to place within a
field. The closer the isolines the higher the gradient, the
faster or the steeper the change. Examples: Close
isobars indicate strong changes in pressure, thus windy
conditions; close contour lines indicate dramatic changes
in elevation, thus steep terrain.
Hydrosphere- The layer of liquid water between the
atmosphere and the Earth’s interior. Most of the
hydrosphere (66%) is composed of hydrogen, hence the
name.
Isolines- Lines that connect equal points of field values.
Examples: Isotherms connect points of equal
temperature; Isobars connect points of equal pressure.
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Latitude- The angular distance north or south of the equator. A
number between 0 (at the equator) and 90 (at the poles). Divides
the Earth into a northern and southern hemisphere. Latitude
always includes an N or S to indicate the hemisphere. The
hemisphere can be determined on a map by checking to see in
which direction the latitude increases. If latitude numbers
increase going to the north, it is a map of the northern
hemisphere. If numbers increase to the south- it is in the
southern hemisphere. If your latitude is increasing, you are
moving away from the equator and towards either pole.
Lithosphere- The layer of rock that forms the solid outer shell of
the Earth’s interior.
Longitude- An angular distance east or west of the prime
meridian. A number between 0-180. Always includes a
designation E or W to indicate the hemisphere. The hemisphere
can be determined by checking to see in which direction the
numbers are increasing. Whichever way longitude increases
indicates the hemisphere the map is depicting.
Meridian (of longitude) - A semi-circle on the surface of the
Earth that connects the north and south poles. All meridians are
the same length and run from pole to pole.
Model- A model is a way of representing the properties of an
object or system. Example: a globe.
Pauses- The boundaries or interfaces of Earth’s atmosphere.
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Prime meridian- A reference or starting
point to measure angular distance east or
west. The prime meridian passes through
Greenwich, England because the English
were the first navigators to establish the
coordinate system. The prime meridian has
a longitude of 0°
Profile- The side view of an area’s
landscape; a cut-a-way view
Scale – A relation between distance on a
map and distance in the real world. Shown
as a ratio, or a statement ( 1 inch equals 40
miles) or a s a graphic line that indicates
the distances.
Topographic map- A model or contour
map that indicates changes in elevation of
the Earth’s surface.
Topic 3-Earth in the Universe
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Celestial Object-Any object outside Earth’s atmosphere
Universe-All time, matter, energy and space
The Big Bang Theory-The theory that the universe started about 13 billion years ago
with an incredible explosion of all matter and energy from an infinitesimally small point.
Doppler Effect- The effect of wavelengths to be stretched longer when an object is
traveling away from you, and compressed when the object is traveling towards you.
With light the expansion (longer wavelengths) appear red, and the compression ()
shorter wavelength) appear blue
Red Shift- The stretching of wavelengths of light as objects travel away from a viewer
Galaxy-A collection of hundreds of billions of stars and gas and dust clouds in one
region of space.
Milky Way Galaxy-The spiral-shaped galaxy to which our solar system belongs.
Star- a large ball of hydrogen and helium gas that produces energy through nuclear
fusion.
Nuclear Fusion-The process of combining protons and neutrons to form larger nuclei
and release energy.
Luminosity- How bright a star would be compared to the sun if it was at the same
distance as the sun.
Solar System-A collection of nine planets, 141 moons*, various asteroids, meteoroids,
comets and dust that all orbit the sun
* As of September 2004
Asteroid- A solid, rocky, usually metallic body that orbits the sun. Asteroids have
various shapes and are smaller than planets. Most orbit in a belt between Mars and
Jupiter.
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Moon- The only natural satellite of the Earth
Comet- A mostly solid object with ice and water which
evaporates as it approaches the sun leaving long and highly
visible tails. Most comets are in long, highly elliptical orbits and
take many years to complete one orbit of the sun.
Meteors (Meteorites) - Small solid, rocky fragments that may
enter the atmosphere. Meteors burn up, meteorites strike the
earth.
Impact Crater- The crater left from an impact from an asteroid,
comet or large meteorite
Impact Event- The collision of an asteroid, comet or other
celestial object with another celestial object.
Terrestrial Planets- Small diameter, high density rocky worlds
closest to the sun.
Jovian Planets- The gas giants-low in density, high mass due to
large size, large diameters.
Rotation- the spin on an imaginary axis that runs through the
center of a planet.
Revolution- The orbit of a celestial object around the sun.
Ellipse- A conic section shaped like an oval with tow points
called foci. Bodies in the solar system orbit the sun in elliptical
orbits with the sun at one of the 2 focus points
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Foci (focus) - The fixed points in an ellipse.
The sum of the distance between any point
on the ellipse and the 2 foci is a constant.
Eccentricity- how oval or circular the
ellipse is. Eccentricity equals the distance
between the foci divided by the length of
the major axis. Eccentricity must be
between 0 and 1. O is a perfect circle, 1 is
highly elliptical.
Inertia-The resistance to change in motion
that any object has. Inertia is directly
proportional to mass.
Gravitation- The force of attraction
between any two objects. Gravity id directly
proportional to the masses of the objects
and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them.
Topic 4 -Motions of the earth,
Moon and Sun
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Axis (of rotation)-Imaginary axis which planets
rotate about.
Constellation-A group of stars that form a pattern
and mark a region of the galaxy.
Coriolis Effect- The effect of fluids to turn to the
right in the northern hemisphere and the left in the
southern hemisphere
Eclipse- When a celestial object comes into the
shadow of another celestial object it is called an
eclipse.
Foucault Pendulum-a freely swinging pendulum.
Due to inertia it swings in the same direction as the
earth turns. The pendulum appears to turn but the
earth is turning. Provides evidence of earth’s
rotation.
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Geocentric Model- Earth at the center of
the solar system/ universe
Heliocentric Model-The sun at the center
of the solar system
Local time-time based on earth’s rotation
and the position of the sun
Phases (of the moon)-The varying
amounts of the lighted portion of the moon
Tides-Cyclic rise and fall of ocean’s (and
some large lakes) due to earth’s rotation
and the gravitational effect of the moon.
Time Zones-A way to solve the problem of
local times being different everywhere.
Topic 5-Energy in Earth's
Processes
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Barrier interactions – When energy interacts with something in
the environment, the energy may be reflected, absorbed or
transmitted through the substance, but it is always conserved.
Calorie- A unit of energy most usually associated with food. The
quantity of heat required to raise one gram of water one degree
Celsius.
Condensation- The changing of a gas to a liquid, requires the
gas to release heat energy.
Conduction-The transfer of heat energy between objects that
are in direct contact.
Convection- The transfer of heat energy by the circulation of
fluids. Fluids include anything that can flow, not just liquids.
Hotter fluids have lower densities and rise, while cooler fluids
have higher densities and sink. Convection is the primary method
for heat distribution in the mantle, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and
sun’s interior. These circulating fluids form convection currents,
also called convection cells.
Crystallization- The process of changing a liquid to a solid with
a specific arrangement pattern of the atoms or molecules; they
form crystals. Requires a release of energy.
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Electromagnetic energy- (EM) -A type of energy that is
radiated in the form of electromagnetic waves. They are
distinguished from each other by their wavelengths. In
order of increasing wavelength, they are: radio waves,
microwaves, infrared (heat), visible light, ultraviolet, x-rays
and gamma rays. Waves transmit energy, so the closer
the waves (shorter wavelength) the more intense is the
radiation.
Electromagnetic spectrum-The spectrum of all
electromagnetic waves. Listed in the ESRT in order of
increasing wavelength.
Energy- The ability to do work. There are many forms of
energy, and in any interaction energy is always
conserved. It cannot be created or destroyed, but it can
change form. Most energy ends up as heat energy, a form
of energy pollution.
Heat energy-Infrared EM energy, which travels from
areas of higher temperature to areas of lower
temperature.
Kinetic energy – The energy of any moving object. faster
speed equals more kinetic energy.
Mechanical energy- The energy of an object not related
to atoms and molecules. Mechanical energy is the sum of
potential and kinetic energy.
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Melt – The process of changing a solid to a liquid by
the absorption of energy.
Nuclear decay- The process of an unstable
nucleus breaking apart and releasing sub-atomic
particles and energy.
Potential energy – The energy from position. A
roller coaster at the top of a hill has a great deal of
potential energy. as it coasts down the track the
potential energy is changed to kinetic energy
(speed) and heat energy through friction.
Radiation- The transfer of heat energy through the
EM spectrum, usually refers to the infrared portion.
Refraction – The bending of light waves as they
travel from one material to another material with a
different density.
Solidification- The process of changing a liquid to
a solid, (freezing) requires a release of energy.
Specific heat-The quantity of heat required to raise
one gram of a particular substance one degree
Celsius.
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Sublimation – The term that refers to either a change
from a gas to a solid (frost) (requires energy to be
released) or the change from a solid to a gas (requires
energy to be absorbed).
Surface characteristics – Determines what will happen
when energy interacts. Light colors increase reflection
and decrease absorption, while dark colors are good
absorbers. Texture also affects how the energy is
reflected or absorbed.
Temperature- The measure of the average kinetic energy
of the particles in a substance.
Texture- The roughness or smoothness of a surface.
Texture affects the amount of EM radiation absorbed or
reflected. Smooth textures are better at reflection than
absorption, while rough textures are better at absorption
than at reflection.
Vaporization-The changing of a liquid to a gas; requires
the liquid to absorb energy. Also referred to as
evaporation.
Wavelength- The length of one wave from crest to crest.
As wavelengths increase, the amount of energy being
transported decreases. When waves are close together
(short wavelengths) more energy is being transmitted.
Topic 6- Insolation and the
Seasons
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Angle of incidence-The incoming angle of the sun’s rays
(insolation). The higher the angle, the greater the intensity
of the radiation. Low angles, such as at sunrise and
sunset spread the radiation over a much larger surface
area, and so its intensity is much less. The amount of
radiation you are receiving can be determined by looking
at the size of your shadow. A small shadow equals a high
intensity, a long shadow equals a low intensity. The angle
of incidence varies with: 1) the time of day- its greatest at
solar noon, 2) latitude – its greatest in the tropics, and 3)
seasons – its greatest in the summer.
Deforestation-The process of cutting entire forests down
to clear land for human uses. This process alters the
balance of nature, influences global warming and
increases the extinction of species.
Equinox – The first day of spring and fall is called an
equinox. It means the Earth experiences equal periods of
day and night (12 hours). These days are March 21 and
September 21.
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El Niño- A warming event in the Pacific
Ocean surface temperatures which disrupt
weather on a global scale producing major
storms and hurricanes.
Global warming-The process of raising
the temperature of the Earth by trapping
large quantities of greenhouse gasses in
the atmosphere, primarily through burning
fossil fuels.
Greenhouse gasses-Gasses that absorb
large quantities of infrared radiation and
trap the heat in the atmosphere are called
greenhouse gasses. These gases are
primarily carbon dioxide, water vapor, and
methane.
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Heat budget-The dynamic equilibrium between the total amount
of heat that an object receives and the amount that it radiates.
Ice ages-A shift in the heat budget which results in more energy
being released than absorbed.
Insolation- INcoming SOLar radiATION is IN-SOL-ATION.
Radiation from the sun.
Land and Water heating differences – Land always heats up
faster and cools down faster than water does. This is because of
4 factors: 1) Water has a very high specific heat- it takes a great
deal of energy to change its temperature, 2) change of state –
water can change from a liquid to a gas, land does not change
states. Energy that is used to change the state of matter is not
available to raise its temperature. This energy becomes latent
heat, a form of potential energy. 3) transparency – water is very
transparent to radiation, land is not at all transparent to radiation.
When light travels to the bottom of a body of water, it is heating
up all of that water. The land stops the light at its surface and
heats up much more quickly. 4) Convection currents distribute
heat in the water. Land is not fluid and has no convection
currents so all the heat remains at the land surface, while it is
distributed throughout the water.
Ozone- A type of oxygen in which three molecule of oxygen join
together. The ozone layer exists in the upper atmosphere
(stratosphere) and is vital to absorption of damaging ultraviolet
radiation, which causes skin cancer.
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Seasons – A change of weather that primarily affects the mid
latitudes (23½°- 66½°) Latitudes less than 23°are mostly warm
all year round, while latitudes near the poles (above 66°) are
mostly cold all year. The change of seasons is caused by three
factors. 1) The Earth’s tilted axis at 23½°, 2) the fact the Earth
revolves around the sun once a year, and 3) parallelism the
Earth’s axis always points in the same direction in space. The
Earth’s orbit around the sun is not a perfect circle, it is an oval
shape called an ellipse. At certain times of the year the Earth is
closer to or farther from the sun, but THE CHANGING
DISTANCE DOES NOT CAUSE SEASONS! In the northern
hemisphere, we are closest to the sun in winter, and farthest
away in summer. The northern and southern hemispheres
experience the opposite seasons. When we are having winter
they are having summer, and vice-versa.
Solstice – The first day of winter and the first day of summer is
called a solstice. On these days either the north pole or the south
pole is pointed most directly at the sun. The polar regions (above
66½° latitude experience either 3 months of daylight ( the sun
never sets) during the summer, or 3 months of night (the sun
never rises) during winter.
Sunspot- A darker region of the sun’s surface where the
temperature is lower than the surrounding areas. Caused by
magnetic storms on the sun’s surface and releases massive
amounts of solar particles (solar storms)
Transpiration- The process by which living organisms (plants
and animals) release water vapor into the atmosphere.
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Factors affecting the amount of insolation an area receives:
1.
Angle of incidence
When the angle of incidence is closest to 90° the insolation intensity is the greatest.
By dayThe angle of incidence is greater at noon than any other time of the day.
The angle of incidence is the lowest at sunrise and sunset.
By seasonThe angle of incidence is the greatest in the summer and the lowest in the
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winter.
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For NYS, about 72° in summer at noon and 25° in winter at noon
2.
Cloud cover
When the sky is mostly cloudy, there is more insolation reflected back into space.
When skies are clear, more insolation reaches the surface.
3.
Earth's shape and latitude
Because the Earth is a sphere, the latitudes receiving the greatest insolation are
those closest to the equator. Polar regions receive the least amount of insolation
because the angle of incidence is lowest at these latitudes. The size of your shadow is
an indicator of the intensity of insolation.
Small shadow = high intensity.
Large/long shadow =
low intensity
4.
Variation in duration of insolation
Because of the Earth's tilted axis, latitudes experiencing summer not only receive a
higher angle of incident insolation, but a longer duration as well. 15 hours. Latitudes
experiencing winter receive the shortest duration of insolation., about 9 hours
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5.
Time delay in maximum and minimum temperatures.
Because water has such a high specific heat and covers so much of the
surface of Earth, the seasonal high and low temperatures lag behind the
seasonal peak of insolation by about a month.
Water is absorbing or releasing its stored heat (latent heat)
The highest temperatures of the summer occur in July/August even
though the longest day is June 21. The coldest temperatures usually
occur in January/February even though the shortest day is December
21. The same time delay occurs on a daily basisWhile the angle of incidence is highest at noon, the hottest time of the day
is usually late in the afternoon. The coolest part of the day is usually right
around sunrise, and is after sunrise on many days.
6.
Long term changes in climate
These are a result of changes in the amount of insolation absorbed or
emitted- called the heat budget. Earth's heat budget has shifted in the
past. There have been periods of ice ages and warm periods. El Nino and
la Nina-between every 2-10 years-not well understood by scientists. Global
warming-some scientists believe it is caused by the massive burning of
fossil fuels, others disagree. The role of sunspot activity and solar cycles
effects on Earth's climate is also not well understood. The slight change of
the tilt of Earth's axis (precession) and eccentricity of the elliptical orbit are
additional factors not well understood. Volcanic eruptions also affect the
amount of insolation received-ash clouds block sun from reaching the
surface.
7. Color and texture – light colors reflect, dark colors absorb. Rough
surfaces absorb, smooth surfaces reflect.
Topic 7-Weather
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Air mass- A large body of air in the troposphere with similar
characteristics
Air pressure gradient- The difference in air pressure over a
given distance. Close isobars indicate high pressure gradient and
windy conditions.
Anemometer- An instrument used to measure wind speed.
Atmospheric, barometric, or air pressure- The pressure of the
air in a given location. Standard pressure of 1 atmosphere equals
1 bar, or 14.7 lbs. /sq. in. or 29.92” of mercury, or 33’ of water.
Atmospheric transparency- How transparent the atmosphere is
to insolation. Less transparent, due to high cloud cover or
pollution, means more sunlight is reflected or absorbed, and less
reaches the ground.
Barometer- An instrument used to measure air pressure.
Cloud cover- The fraction of the sky that is covered by clouds.
Cold front- Boundary of an advancing cold air mass. The
heavier, underlying cold air pushes forward like a wedge.
Cyclone- Low pressure storms
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Cyclonic storm- Low pressure storms in midlatitudes, and Indian Ocean; also called hurricanes
in the Atlantic, and typhoons in the Pacific.
Dew point- The temperature at which relative
humidity reaches 100%.
Front- Where two air masses of different
characteristics meet.
Humidity- Amount of water vapor in the
atmosphere. warm air can hold more vapor than
cold air can.
Isobar- Isolines of equal pressure are isobars.
Jet stream- Bands of easterly moving air at the top
of the troposphere blowing 200 MPH or more.
Monsoons- Regular and severe weather changes
caused by shifting winds.
Occluded front- Boundary of opposing wedges of
cold air masses formed when a cold front forces
warm air up, off the ground.
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Planetary wind belts- Winds moving in
predominantly one direction. They are due to winds
blowing from high pressure to low pressure areas
and the spin of the Earth (Coriolis Effect).
Polar front- An ever changing boundary in midlatitudes between cold air masses from the poles
and warm air masses from the equator.
Precipitation- The falling of liquid or solid water
from clouds.
Probability- Chance of occurrence of certain types
of weather. These are predictions based on weather
models, and past performance.
Psychrometer- An instrument used to measure
relative humidity. (A wet-bulb and dry-bulb
thermometers and a table)
Radar- Reflected electro-magnetic energy that is
used to give a 3-dimensional view of weather.
Acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging
Relative humidity- The ratio of the amount of water
vapor in the air to the maximum amount that could
be dissolved in the air.
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Stationary front- Two masses of air with different
characteristics that remain in the same position.
Station model- Symbols and a circle used to
indicate weather variables for a specific site.
Troposphere- The part of the earth’s atmosphere
directly above the surface. Most weather occurs in
the troposphere.
Visibility- How far you can see along Earth’s
surface in miles.
Warm front- Boundary of an advancing warm air
mass. Because colder air is heavier, warm air is
forced to rise as it advances.
Water vapor- Gaseous water in the atmosphere.
Weather variables- temperature, pressure, wind,
moisture, cloud cover, precipitation, and storms.
Topic 8 -Water and Climate
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Capillarity-The attractive force between water molecules that
can oppose the force of gravity. Capillarity is greater when the
tube diameter is smaller.
Climate-The weather conditions at a location over a long period
of time
Ground water-The sub-surface water stored below the water
table is ground water. 2/3 of all non-frozen freshwater on earth is
ground water.
Hydrologic cycle- See water cycle
Infiltrate-As water slowly moves through open spaces in the
ground it is said to infiltrate the ground
Permeability- The ability of a material to allow fluids to pass
through is its permeability. The permeability rate is the speed at
which fluids can infiltrate the ground.
Porosity- The amount of open space between particles of dirt
and sediment is the porosity of the soil.
Prevailing winds- The direction from which the wind usually
blows at a given location
Runoff-As precipitation flows over the surface of the earth back
towards the oceans it is described as runoff.
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Seep-The process of water infiltrating the ground
Sorted- Sediments are said to be sorted when they are
close in size to one another.
Stream discharge- The volume of water that a stream
discharges over a given period of time is the stream
discharge.
Unsorted- When sediments are mixed sizes they are said
to be unsorted. Usually from glacial deposition.
Urbanization- The development of large areas, including
road building, parking lots and buildings. Urbanization
decreases infiltration and increases runoff.
Water cycle- A model used to show the movement and
phase changes of water at or near Earth’s surface.
Water retention- Precipitation can be stored or retained
on the land as ice or snow, or on the leaves of plants and
trees
Water table- The interface between the area of saturation
and zone or aeration is the water table. Ground water is
at and below the water table.
Topic 9 - Weathering and
Erosion
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Abrasion-Rocks scraping against other rocks primarily through
glacial erosion produces abrasions. Abrasion has the effect or
rounding sharp pieces of rock.
Breaking wave-When a wave reaches shallow water it is unable
to support its height and “breaks” in a forward rush of water.
Chemical weathering-This occurs when carbon dioxide or sulfur
dioxide dissolve in water and then dissolve rocks. Plant roots
may also secrete mild acids that contribute to chemical
weathering.
Delta-A delta is a depositional feature formed by deposition of
sediments carried by a stream over a long period oft time.
Erosion-The transportation of sediments through running water,
glacial ice, wind, waves, and mass movements is the process of
erosion. Erosion almost always moves particles to lower
elevations, wind is the exception.
Finger Lakes-These are long narrow lakes in U-shaped valleys,
left behind as glaciers melt. They are usually dammed at one end
with a pile of loose debris.
Flood plain-During times of floods when a stream overflows its
banks it may flow out onto a wider valley and deposit sediments
in the flood plain.
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Glacial groove-The gouges left behind by a glacier are
glacial grooves.
Glacier-A naturally formed mass of ice which
accumulates over long periods of time. Glaciers can form
in mountains and move down a valley, (valley glacier) or
cover entire continents (Greenland, Antarctica). These are
continental glaciers.
Mass movement- Rock slides, mud or debris flows,
creep and slump are examples of mass movements. The
primary force causing mass movements is gravity.
Meander-A physical feature carved by a river. Meanders
are snake like bends and curves in a river or stream.
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Physical weathering- Frost action, freeze-thaw cycles,
plant root growth, and abrupt temperature changes can
cause rocks to crack and breakdown into smaller pieces.
Sandbar-In the zone of breaking waves, sediments
deposited can form a barrier parallel to the shore called a
sandbar.
Sandblasting-This occurs when winds pick up sediments
and blow them against rocks causing abrasion.
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Sediments- Particles of rock which have been
broken down into small pieces by the process of
weathering.
Stream-When running water is confined to a narrow
channel a stream is formed.
Stream channel shape- The shape of the bedrock
or loose materials that confine a stream is the
stream channel shape.
Tributary- A smaller stream that joins a larger
stream is a tributary.
U-shaped valley-The shape of a valley carved by
glaciers, the sides are cut away by the ice leaving
the U shape.
V-shaped valley-The shape of a valley carved by a
stream or river is V-shaped because the stream cuts
deeper over time.
Watershed-The area of land drained by a stream or
series of streams is a watershed.
Weathering-The chemical and physical breakdown
of rocks at or near Earth’s surface.
Topic 10-Deposition
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Barrier Island-An island created by the deposition
of sand offshore, and held in place by growing
vegetation.
Deposition-The process by which sediments are
released, settled from, or dropped by an erosional
system.
Drumlin-Streamlined, oval shaped moraines that
look like an inverted spoon.
Kettle Lake-A lake formed by the depression due to
the weight of a glacier and the melting of the ice.
Moraine-The unsorted sheets or piles deposited on
the sides or at the end of a glacier.
Outwash Plain- The running water that moves
away from the terminus of a glacier may move out
in a fan-shaped pattern that is called an outwash
plain.
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Sand dune-A large pile of sand deposited
by wind. Sand dunes have a steep gradient
on the windward side (side facing the
wind), and a gradual slope on the leeward
side (side facing away from the wind.) This
feature of sand dunes can be used to
determine the direction from which the
wind blows. Sand dunes migrate as sand
on the windward side is blown around to
the leeward side.
Sorted sediments-Sediments that are
similar in size and shape, usually deposited
by running water or wind.
Unsorted sediments-Sediments that are
very different in size and shape, usually the
result of glacial deposition or mass
movements.
Topic 11- Earth’s Materials
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Bioclastic sedimentary rocks-Rocks that were formed from
living organisms, such as shells forming calcium carbonate
limestone rocks.
Chemical sedimentary rocks-Rocks formed from the chemical
precipitation of dissolved chemicals, usually salts.
Clastic sedimentary rocks-Rocks that are largely composed of
solid sediments such as sand in sandstone.
Cleavage-The tendency of a rock to break along lines of weaker
atomic bonds forming smooth planes, and specific angles is its
cleavage.
Contact metamorphism- The metamorphism that occurs when
older rocks come into direct contact with hot magma.
Crystal shape-The outward geometric shape of a mineral is
determined by the crystal shape.
Crystal structure-The specific arrangement of atoms in a
material.
Extrusive igneous rocks-Igneous rocks that form on the
surface of the Earth- exposed to the atmosphere.
Foliation-Large mineral crystals often in layers.
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Fossil-Evidence of former life preserved in rock.
Fracture-If a material lacks specific lines of weaker
atomic bonds, it will break with uneven surfaces. This is
called fracture.
Hardness-The resistance a rock offers to being scratched
is its hardness. A rock that can scratch another is harder
than the rock that was scratched.
Igneous rocks- Rocks formed when liquid magma or
lava cools and hardens.
Inorganic-Not composed of anything that is or was alive.
Intrusive igneous rocks-Igneous rocks that form
beneath the Earth’s surface.
Luster-The shine from an unpolished rock, or the way it
reflects light is its luster
Magma-Liquid rock beneath Earth’s surface- not exposed
to the atmosphere.
Metamorphic rocks-Rocks that have been changed
under temperature and pressure from sedimentary or
igneous rocks.
Metamorphism-The process through heat and pressure
of changing a rocks composition and mineral structure.
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Mineral- A naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline solid,
with a definite chemical composition
Mineral crystal-Individual grains of minerals.
Mineral resources-Earth’s resources including minerals,
rocks and fossil fuels.
Organic-Refers to anything that is or was alive.
Generally, organic materials are carbon based.
Precipitation of minerals-The result of evaporation,
saturation with dissolved minerals, or changes in
temperature.
Regional metamorphism-Metamorphism that occurs in a
large area or region.
Rock cycle- A model used to show the various stages of
rocks from sedimentary to metamorphic or igneous.
Sedimentary rocks-Rocks that form from an
accumulation of sediments.
Streak-The color of finely crushed residue or powder of
the mineral
Texture-The size, shape and arrangement of the
materials in a rock are its texture.
Topic 12- Earth’s dynamic
crust and Interior
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Asthenosphere-A portion of the upper mantle just below
the crust. This is a plastic layer that the plates move
around on.
Continental crust-Crust at the continents-thicker than
oceanic crust. Primarily composed of less dense granite.
Convergent plate boundary-A boundary where two
plates move together in a head-on collision. These cause
mountain building if both plates are continental, and
subduction if one plate is oceanic.
Crust-The top part of the lithosphere.
Divergent plate boundary-A boundary where two plates
are moving apart from one another.
Earthquake-A natural, rapid vibration of the lithosphere.
Usually caused by plate motions.
Epicenter-The location on the surface of the land or
water directly above the location where an earthquake
originated.
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Faulted-Rock layers that are offset from the position in
which they formed. Faulting can be vertical or horizontal.
Folded- Rock layers that are bent or tilted.
Hot spot-A place where the crust is especially thin. There
may be geothermal or volcanic activity associated with
hot spots.
Inner core-The central core of the earth, composed of
solid iron and nickel.
Island arc-A region of islands created by volcanoes from
a hot spot.
Lithosphere-The layer of rock that forms the outer layer
of Earth’s shell at the top of Earth’s interior is the
lithosphere.
Mantle-The thickest part of earth’s interior, located below
the lithosphere. The mantle contains 80% of earth’s
volume and is separated from the crust by a layer called
the Moho.
Mid-ocean ridge-A region where plates diverge and new
oceanic crust is formed.
Moho-A thin layer that separates the crust from the
mantle.
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Oceanic crust-Thinner crust portions beneath the
oceans; primarily composed of higher density
basalt.
Ocean trench-In regions of subduction, trenches
are formed which are the deepest regions of earth’s
oceans.
Original horizontality- The concept that sediments
and lava flows occur originally in horizontal layers.
Outer core-The fluid portion of earth’s core, mostly
liquid iron and nickel
Plate tectonic theory-The theory that the plates
move around at the surface of the Earth.
P-waves-The primary earthquake wave. P-waves
cause particle vibration in the direction the wave
travels. (Longitudinal waves)
Subduction-The process of a more dense plate
sinking beneath a less dense plate.
S-waves-Secondary waves cause particle vibration
at right angles to the direction of wave propagation.
(Transverse waves).
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Seismic waves-The release of energy during an
earthquake is recorded as a seismic wave.
Tectonic plates-Lithospheric plates, Plates, - sections of
crust are divided into oceanic and continental plates.
Transform plate boundary-The boundary between two
plates that are sliding past each other.
Tsunami-A wave generated by an earthquake. Tsunamis
can be extremely large and cause extreme property
damage and loss of life.
Uplift-The force that lifts portions of the crust to higher
elevation. Uplift is usually caused by a build up of magma
below the surface or by plates colliding.
Volcanic eruption-The release of gasses, steam, ash,
pyroclasts, and molten rock (lava) is an eruption.
Volcano-A mountain formed from extrusive igneous
rocks.
Young mountains-Created by convergent plates colliding
and forcing the lithosphere to be uplifted.
Topic 13 - Interpreting
Geologic History
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Geologic age - the age of the Earth is so immense that its age
is referred to as geologic time. If the age of the Earth was
represented with a stack of paper sheets, and each sheet of
paper represented 2000 years, the stack of paper would have to
be about 750 feet high to represent the Earth.
The geologic rock record is very much like a bunch of 1000 piece
jigsaw puzzles. All over the world, at every location there is the
same puzzle. The problem is, that no where is there a puzzle
with all 1000 pieces in the box. Some puzzles are missing 50100 pieces and others are missing several hundred pieces. No
complete puzzle can be completed, but because all the puzzles
make the same picture, we can get an idea what is missing at
our location by seeing another puzzle that is not missing those
pieces. This process of filling in the missing pieces is called
correlation. The pieces are missing due to erosion. It is erosion
that removes puzzle pieces from the rock record. These missing
sections are called unconformities.
Absolute age-The absolute age of a rock in years, usually a
range like 410-425 million years. Determined with radioactive
dating.
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Carbon-14 dating- The process of using Carbon-14, an
isotope of carbon, for absolute dating. The use depends
on knowing the original amount of Carbon-14 present and
the amount of the decay product.
Correlation-Correlation is the process of showing that
rocks from different places are the same or similar in age.
This process fills in the missing pieces of the geologic
rock record using among other techniques- index fossils.
Extrusion-When igneous rock flows out onto the surface
and solidifies, it forms an extrusion.
Faults- a break between rock layers. Faults are always
younger than the rocks they cut across.
Fossil-The remains of former life, preserved as rocks.
Almost all fossils are found in sedimentary rocks. Igneous
and metamorphic rock processes destroy fossils.
Geologic time scale-Divisions of the geologic time based
on changing fossil evidence. The divisions are, from
longest to shortest, eons, eras, periods, and epochs.
Much of the information regarding these time units is in
your reference tables.
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Half-life-The time required for half of a radioactive
sample to decay is its half-life. By knowing the half-life of
an isotope and the fractions that are decayed and still
radioactive, we can determine the age of a rock or
artifact. Because we need a reasonable fraction to look
at, this techniques works best when at least 1 half-life has
gone by (not too much still radioactive) and no more than
6 half-life's have gone by (too much decayed).
Inclusion- When a piece of older rock is encased in a
younger rock, it is an inclusion. Inclusions form as magma
pushes through older rock and is not hot enough to melt
the older rock. It may completely surround the older rock
forming an inclusion. Inclusions are always older than the
rock that surrounds them.
Index fossil-Index fossils are used in correlation. To be
an index fossil, 2 conditions must be met. First, the fossil
must have lived over a wide geographic area so that its
remains have a large horizontal distribution. Second, the
life form must have lived for a relatively short period
of geologic time before it went extinct. If it lives for a
long time period and can be found in many different rock
layers it is not useful in correlating bedrock.
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Intrusion- When magma squeezes into existing rocks and
crystallizes underground it forms an intrusion. Intrusions are
younger than any rock they cut through. Intrusions will cause
contact metamorphism. If we see an intrusion covered by a rock
layer that does not show contact metamorphism – we know that
the rock layer formed after the intrusion. If we see contact
metamorphism on the rock layer above the intrusion, it tells us
that the rock layer was there when the intrusion occurred.
Isotope-A variety of an element with a different number of
protons than the most common variety of that element is an
isotope. It must have the same number of protons- change the
number of protons and you change elements.
Organic evolution theory-The theory that life forms change
over time.
Outgassing- The process of gasses seeping out of Earth's
interior.
Principle of original horizontality – A fancy way to say that
sedimentary rocks form in horizontal layers. If the rocks we are
looking at are no longer flat, then the tilting or folding (tectonic
forces) happened since they were formed.
Principle of superposition- The idea that the bottom layer of a
series of rock layers is the oldest, and that younger layers are on
top of the older layers. New sedimentary rocks form on top of
older sedimentary rocks.
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Radioactive dating-The process of using the half life of a
radioactive isotope and the ratio between the existing amount
and the original amount to date rocks in an absolute manner.
Radioactive decay-The process of an element’s nucleus
breaking apart and releasing particles and energy is radioactive
decay. This breaking apart is called fission.
Radioactive decay fractions – These are the fractions
geologists use to determine absolute age. There are always 2
fractions which will add up to the whole (1) The first is the fraction
that is still radioactive (parents). This fraction is cut in half each
time 1 half-life goes by. It always has a 1 for its numerator and its
denominator continually doubles. The other is the fraction that
has decayed (daughters). This fraction always has the same
denominator as the corresponding parent, and its numerator is
the denominator minus 1. Example: after 3 half life's- Parents
equal ½
¼
1/8
daughters equal
½
¾
7/8
The 1/8 and the 7/8 add up to the whole (1)
Parents approach 0 but will never reach it while daughters
approach 100% without ever reaching it.
Radioactive isotopes continue to decay forever! Nothing affects
their decay- not temperature, pressure, size or age of the
sample!
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Unconformity- A buried, erosional surface of rock,
in which older rock layers are missing from the
geologic record. Without an atmosphere and
weather a planet would not have any
unconformities.
Uranium-238- An important radioactive isotope of
uranium which helps scientists to date rocks. Halflife and disintegration are on the front cover of the
reference table.
Volcanic ash- The dust and particles expelled by
volcanoes during eruptions is volcanic ash. These
serve as specific age markers in the glacial and
geologic records. The glacial ice can be dated
absolutely by examining the lines in ice cores. Every
volcano emits a composition of dust and ash that is
unique – like a volcanic fingerprint. These are
extremely useful markers in the rock record that
assist the correlation process. Impact events
(asteroid collisions) produce the same effect.
Topic 14 - Landscape
Development and Environmental
Change
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Escarpment-Cliffs that form where rocks of different hardness
erode at different rates.
Landscape- Landscape or topography are the features of the
surface on top of the lithosphere.
Landscape region- The characteristics of a region including
bedrock structures, elevation, stream drainage patterns, and soil
characteristics.
Mountain- An area of high elevations compared to the
surrounding area. Usually includes areas of steep gradients, and
many changes in slope.
Plain-Usually composed of sedimentary rock layers in a
horizontal structure at lower elevations.
Plateau-An area of high elevation with a horizontal structure.
Ridges-Formed from more resistant rock layers, usually in long,
narrow bands called ridges.
Stream drainage pattern-The shape of a stream in an area as
viewed from overhead.
Uplifting forces-The forces that originate deep within the Earth.
They include volcanoes, earthquakes and plate tectonic forces.
New York State Earth Science
Core Curriculum and Performance
Indicators
 The core curriculum is based on
5 key ideas under Standard IVScience.
 Performance indicators describe
what New York State Earth
Science students will know and
understand after completing a
course of study in the subject.
Learning Standards for Mathematics, Science, and
Technology: Commencement Level.
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Standard 1: Students will use mathematical analysis,
scientific inquiry, and engineering design, as appropriate,
to pose questions, seek answers, and develop solutions.
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Standard 2: Students will access, generate, process, and
transfer information using appropriate technologies.
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Standard 3: Students will understand mathematics and
become mathematically confident by communicating and
reasoning mathematically, by applying mathematics in
real-world settings, and by solving problems through the
integrated study of number systems, geometry, algebra,
data analysis, probability, and trigonometry.
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Standard 4: Students will understand and apply scientific
concepts, principles, and theories pertaining to the
physical setting and living environment and recognize the
historical development of ideas in science.
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Standard 5: Students will apply technological knowledge
and skills to design, construct, use, and evaluate products
and systems to satisfy human and environmental needs.
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Standard 6: Students will understand the relationships
and common themes that connect mathematics, science,
and technology and apply the themes to these and other
areas of learning.
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Standard 7: Students will apply the knowledge and
thinking skills of mathematics, science, and technology to
address real-life problems and make informed decisions.
The 5 Key Ideas in Science –
The Physical setting
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1. The Earth and celestial phenomena can be
described by principles of relative motion and
perspective.
Students:
• explain complex phenomena, such as tides,
variations in day length, solar insolation, apparent
motion of the planets, and annual traverse of the
constellations.
• describe current theories about the origin of the
universe and solar system.
This is evident, for example, when students:
create models, drawings, or demonstrations to
explain changes in day length, solar insolation, and
the apparent motion of planets.
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2. Many of the phenomena we observe on Earth
involve interactions among components of air,
water, and land.
Students:
• use the concepts of density and heat energy to
explain observations of weather patterns, seasonal
changes, and the movements of the Earth’s plates.
• explain how incoming solar radiations, ocean
currents, and land masses affect weather and
climate.
This is evident, for example, when students:
use diagrams of ocean currents at different latitudes
to develop explanations for the patterns present.
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3. Matter is made up of particles whose
properties determine the observable
characteristics of matter and its reactivity.
Students:
• explain the properties of materials in terms of the
arrangement and properties of the atoms that
compose them.
• use atomic and molecular models to explain
common chemical reactions.
• apply the principle of conservation of mass to
chemical reactions.
• use kinetic molecular theory to explain rates of
reactions and the relationships among temperature,
pressure, and volume of a substance.
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This is evident, for example, when students:
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use the atomic theory of elements to justify their
choice of an element for use as a lighter than air
gas for a launch vehicle.
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represent common chemical reactions using threedimensional models of the molecules involved.
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discuss and explain a variety of everyday
phenomena involving rates of chemical reactions, in
terms of the kinetic molecular theory (e.g., use of
refrigeration to keep food from spoiling, ripening of
fruit in a bowl, use of kindling wood to start a fire,
different types of flames that come from a Bunsen
burner).
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4. Energy exists in many forms, and when these
forms change energy is conserved.
Students:
• observe and describe transmission of various
forms of energy.
• explain heat in terms of kinetic molecular theory.
• explain variations in wavelength and frequency in
terms of the source of the vibrations that produce
them, e.g., molecules, electrons, and nuclear
particles.
• explain the uses and hazards of radioactivity.
This is evident, for example, when students:
demonstrate through drawings, models, and
diagrams how the potential energy that exists in the
chemical bonds of fossil fuels can be converted to
electrical energy in a power plant (potential energy,
heat energy, mechanical energy, electrical energy).
investigate the sources of radioactive emissions in
their environment and the dangers and benefits they
pose for humans.
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5. Energy and matter interact through forces
that result in changes in motion.
Students:
• explain and predict different patterns of motion of
objects (e.g., linear and angular motion, velocity and
acceleration, momentum and inertia).
• explain chemical bonding in terms of the motion of
electrons.
• compare energy relationships within an atom’s
nucleus to those outside the nucleus.
This is evident, for example, when students:
construct drawings, models, and diagrams
representing several different types of chemical
bonds to demonstrate the basis of the bond, the
strength of the bond, and the type of electrical
attraction that exists.
Core Curriculum Performance
Indicators
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PERFORMANCE INDICATOR 1.1
Explain complex phenomena, such as tides, variations in
day length, solar insolation, apparent motion of the
planets, and annual traverse of the constellations.
1.1a Most objects in the solar system are in regular and
predictable motion.
These motions explain such phenomena as the day, the
year, seasons, phases of the moon, eclipses, and tides.
Gravity influences the motions of celestial objects. The
force of gravity between two objects in the universe
depends on their masses and the distance between them.
1.1b Nine planets move around the Sun in nearly circular
orbits.
The orbit of each planet is an ellipse with the Sun located
at one of the foci.
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Earth is orbited by one moon and many artificial satellites.
1.1c Earth’s coordinate system of latitude and longitude,
with the equator and prime meridian as reference lines, is
based upon Earth’s rotation and our observation of the
Sun and stars.
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1.1d Earth rotates on an imaginary axis at a rate of 15
degrees per hour. To people on Earth, this turning of the
planet makes it seem as though the Sun, the moon, and
the stars are moving around Earth once a day. Rotation
provides a basis for our system of local time; meridians of
longitude are the basis for time zones.
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1.1e The Foucault pendulum and the Coriolis effect
provide evidence of Earth’s rotation.
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1.1f Earth’s changing position with regard to the Sun and
the moon has noticeable effects.
Earth revolves around the Sun with its rotational axis tilted
at 23.5 degrees to a line perpendicular to the plane of its
orbit, with the North Pole aligned with Polaris.
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During Earth’s one-year period of revolution, the tilt of its
axis results in changes in the angle of incidence of the
Sun’s rays at a given latitude; these changes cause
variation in the heating of the surface. This produces
seasonal variation in weather.
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1.1g Seasonal changes in the apparent positions of
constellations provide evidence of Earth’s revolution.
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1.1h The Sun’s apparent path through the sky varies with
latitude and season.
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1.1i Approximately 70 percent of Earth’s surface is
covered by a relatively thin layer of water, which responds
to the gravitational attraction of the moon and the Sun
with a daily cycle of high and low tides.
PERFORMANCE INDICATOR 1.2
Describe current theories about the origin of
the universe and solar system.
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1.2a The universe is vast and estimated to be over ten
billion years old. The current theory is that the
universe was created from an explosion called the
Big Bang. Evidence for this theory includes:
cosmic background radiation
a red-shift (the Doppler effect) in the light from very
distant galaxies.
1.2b Stars form when gravity causes clouds of molecules
to contract until nuclear fusion of light elements
into
heavier ones occurs. Fusion releases great amounts of
energy over millions of years.
The stars differ from each other in size, temperature, and
age.
Our Sun is a medium-sized star within a spiral galaxy of
stars known as the Milky Way. Our galaxy contains
billions of stars, and the universe contains billions of such
galaxies.
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1.2c Our solar system formed about five billion years ago
from a giant cloud of gas and debris. Gravity
caused Earth and the other planets to become
layered according to density differences in their
materials.
The characteristics of the planets of the solar system are
affected by each planet’s location in relationship to the
Sun.
The terrestrial planets are small, rocky, and dense. The
Jovian planets are large, gaseous, and of low density.
1.2d Asteroids, comets, and meteors are components of
our solar system.
Impact events have been correlated with mass extinction
and global climatic change.
Impact craters can be identified in Earth’s crust.
1.2e Earth’s early atmosphere formed as a result of the
outgassing of water vapor, carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, and lesser amounts of other gases from its
interior.
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1.2f Earth’s oceans formed as a result of precipitation
over millions of years. The presence of an early
ocean
is indicated by sedimentary rocks of marine origin, dating
back about four billion years.
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1.2g Earth has continuously been recycling water since
the outgassing of water early in its history. This constant
recirculation of water at and near Earth’s surface is
described by the hydrologic (water) cycle.
Water is returned from the atmosphere to Earth’s surface
by precipitation. Water returns to the atmosphere by
evaporation or transpiration from plants. A portion of the
precipitation becomes runoff over the land or infiltrates
into the ground to become stored in the soil or
groundwater below the water table. Soil capillarity
influences these processes.
The amount of precipitation that seeps into the ground or
runs off is influenced by climate, slope of the land, soil,
rock type, vegetation, land use, and degree of saturation.
Porosity, permeability, and water retention affect runoff
and infiltration.
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1.2h The evolution of life caused dramatic changes in the
composition of Earth’s atmosphere. Free oxygen did not
form in the atmosphere until oxygen-producing organisms
evolved.
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1.2i The pattern of evolution of life-forms on Earth is at
least partially preserved in the rock record.
Fossil evidence indicates that a wide variety of life-forms
has existed in the past and that most of these forms have
become extinct.
Human existence has been very brief compared to the
expanse of geologic time.
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1.2j Geologic history can be reconstructed by observing
sequences of rock types and fossils to correlate
bedrock at various locations.
The characteristics of rocks indicate the processes by
which they formed and the environments in which these
processes took place.
Fossils preserved in rocks provide information about past
environmental conditions.
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Geologists have divided Earth history into time units
based upon the fossil record.
Age relationships among bodies of rocks can be
determined using principles of original horizontality,
superposition, inclusions, cross-cutting relationships,
contact metamorphism, and unconformities. The
presence of volcanic ash layers, index fossils, and
meteoritic debris can provide additional information.
The regular rate of nuclear decay (half-life time period) of
radioactive isotopes allows geologists to determine the
absolute age of materials found in some rocks.
Key Idea 2: Many of the phenomena that
we observe on Earth involve interactions
among components of air, water, and land.
Earth may be considered a huge machine
driven by two engines, one internal and
one external. These heat engines convert
heat energy into mechanical energy.
PERFORMANCE INDICATOR 2.1
Use the concepts of density and heat energy to explain
observations of weather patterns, seasonal changes,
and the movements of Earth’s plates.
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2.1a Earth systems have internal and external sources of
energy, both of which create heat.
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2.1b The transfer of heat energy within the atmosphere,
the hydrosphere, and Earth’s interior results in the
formation of regions of different densities. These density
differences result in motion.
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2.1c Weather patterns become evident when weather
variables are observed, measured, and recorded. These
variables include air temperature, air pressure, moisture
(relative humidity and dewpoint), precipitation (rain, snow,
hail, sleet, etc.), wind speed and direction, and cloud
cover.
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2.1d Weather variables are measured using instruments
such as thermometers, barometers, psychrometers,
precipitation gauges, anemometers, and wind vanes.
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2.1e Weather variables are interrelated.
For example: temperature and humidity affect air
pressure and probability of precipitation
air pressure gradient controls wind velocity
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2.1f Air temperature, dewpoint, cloud formation, and
precipitation are affected by the expansion and
contraction of air due to vertical atmospheric movement.
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2.1g Weather variables can be represented in a variety of
formats including radar and satellite images, weather
maps (including station models, isobars, and fronts),
atmospheric cross-sections, and computer models.
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2.1h Atmospheric moisture, temperature and pressure
distributions; jet streams, wind; air masses and frontal
boundaries; and the movement of cyclonic systems and
associated tornadoes, thunderstorms, and hurricanes
occur in observable patterns. Loss of property, personal
injury, and loss of life can be reduced by effective
emergency preparedness.
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2.1i Seasonal changes can be explained using concepts
of density and heat energy. These changes include the
shifting of global temperature zones, the shifting of
planetary wind and ocean current patterns, the
occurrence of monsoons, hurricanes, flooding, and
severe weather.
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2.1j Properties of Earth’s internal structure (crust, mantle,
inner core, and outer core) can be inferred from the
analysis of the behavior of seismic waves (including
velocity and refraction).
Analysis of seismic waves allows the determination of the
location of earthquake epicenters, and the measurement
of earthquake magnitude; this analysis leads to the
inference that Earth’s interior is composed of layers that
differ in composition and states of matter.
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2.1k The outward transfer of Earth’s internal heat drives
convective circulation in the mantle that moves the
lithospheric plates comprising Earth’s surface.
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2.1l The lithosphere consists of separate plates that ride
on the more fluid asthenosphere and move slowly in
relationship to one another, creating convergent,
divergent, and transform plate boundaries. These motions
indicate Earth is a dynamic geologic system.
These plate boundaries are the sites of most
earthquakes, volcanoes, and young mountain ranges.
Compared to continental crust, ocean crust is thinner and
denser. New ocean crust continues to form at mid-ocean
ridges.
Earthquakes and volcanoes present geologic hazards to
humans. Loss of property, personal injury, and loss of life
can be reduced by effective emergency preparedness.
2.1m Many processes of the rock cycle are
consequences of plate dynamics. These include the
production of magma (and subsequent igneous rock
formation and contact metamorphism) at both subduction
and rifting regions, regional metamorphism within
subduction zones, and the creation of major depositional
basins through down-warping of the crust.
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2.1n Many of Earth’s surface features such as mid-ocean
ridges/rifts, trenches/subduction zones/island arcs,
mountain ranges (folded, faulted, and volcanic), hot spots,
and the magnetic and age patterns in surface bedrock are
a consequence of forces associated with plate motion and
interaction.
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2.1o Plate motions have resulted in global changes in
geography, climate, and the patterns of organic evolution.
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2.1p Landforms are the result of the interaction of tectonic
forces and the processes of weathering, erosion, and
deposition.
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2.1q Topographic maps represent landforms through the
use of contour lines that are isolines connecting points of
equal elevation. Gradients and profiles can be determined
from changes in elevation over a given distance.
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2.1r Climate variations, structure, and characteristics of
bedrock influence the development of landscape features
including mountains, plateaus, plains, valleys, ridges,
escarpments, and stream drainage patterns.
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2.1s Weathering is the physical and chemical breakdown
of rocks at or near Earth’s surface. Soils are the result of
weathering and biological activity over long periods of
time.
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2.1t Natural agents of erosion, generally driven by gravity,
remove, transport, and deposit weathered rock particles.
Each agent of erosion produces distinctive changes in the
material that it transports and creates characteristic
surface features and landscapes. In certain erosional
situations, loss of property, personal injury, and loss of life
can be reduced by effective emergency preparedness.
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2.1u The natural agents of erosion include:
Streams (running water): Gradient, discharge, and
channel shape influence a stream’s velocity and the
erosion and deposition of sediments. Sediments
transported by streams tend to become rounded as a
result of abrasion. Stream features include V-shaped
valleys, deltas, flood plains, and meanders. A watershed
is the area drained by a stream and its tributaries.
Glaciers (moving ice): Glacial erosional processes include
the formation of U-shaped valleys, parallel scratches, and
grooves in bedrock. Glacial features include moraines,
drumlins, kettle lakes, finger lakes, and outwash plains.
Wave Action: Erosion and deposition cause changes in
shoreline features, including beaches, sandbars, and
barrier islands. Wave action rounds sediments as a result
of abrasion. Waves approaching a shoreline move sand
parallel to the shore within the zone of breaking waves.
Wind: Erosion of sediments by wind is most common in
arid climates and along shorelines. Wind-generated
features include dunes and sand-blasted bedrock.
Mass Movement: Earth materials move downslope under
the influence of gravity.
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2.1v Patterns of deposition result from a loss of energy
within the transporting system and are influenced by the
size, shape, and density of the transported particles.
Sediment deposits may be sorted or unsorted.
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2.1w Sediments of inorganic and organic origin often
accumulate in depositional environments. Sedimentary
rocks form when sediments are compacted and/or
cemented after burial or as the result of chemical
precipitation from seawater.
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PERFORMANCE INDICATOR 2.2
Explain how incoming solar radiation, ocean
currents, and land masses affect weather and
climate.
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2.2a Insolation (solar radiation) heats Earth’s surface and
atmosphere unequally due to variations in:
the intensity caused by differences in atmospheric
transparency and angle of incidence which vary with time
of day, latitude, and season.
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2.2a continued characteristics of the materials absorbing the
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energy such as color, texture, transparency, state of matter, and
specific heat
duration, which varies with seasons and latitude.
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2.2b The transfer of heat energy within the atmosphere,
the hydrosphere, and Earth’s surface occurs as the result
of radiation, convection, and conduction.
Heating of Earth’s surface and atmosphere by the Sun
drives convection within the atmosphere and oceans,
producing winds and ocean currents.
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2.2c A location’s climate is influenced by latitude,
proximity to large bodies of water, ocean currents,
prevailing winds, vegetative cover, elevation, and
mountain ranges.
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2.2d Temperature and precipitation patterns are altered
by:
natural events such as El Nino and volcanic eruptions
human influences including deforestation, urbanization,
and the production of greenhouse gases such as carbon
dioxide and methane.
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Key Idea 3:
Matter is made up of particles whose properties
determine the observable characteristics of matter and
its reactivity
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PERFORMANCE INDICATOR 3.1
Explain the properties of materials in terms
of the arrangement and properties of the
atoms that compose them.
3.1a Minerals have physical properties determined by
their chemical composition and
crystal structure.
Minerals can be identified by well-defined physical and
chemical properties, such as cleavage, fracture, color,
density, hardness, streak, luster, crystal shape, and
reaction with acid.
Chemical composition and physical properties determine
how minerals are used by humans.
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3.1b Minerals are formed inorganically by the process of
crystallization as a result of specific environmental
conditions. These include:
cooling and solidification of magma
precipitation from water caused by such processes as
evaporation, chemical reactions, and temperature
changes
rearrangement of atoms in existing minerals subjected to
conditions of high temperature and pressure.
3.1c Rocks are usually composed of one or more
minerals.
Rocks are classified by their origin, mineral content, and
texture.
Conditions that existed when a rock formed can be
inferred from the rock’s mineral content and texture.
The properties of rocks determine how they are used and
also influence land usage by humans.