Transcript Kyoto Protocol - Earth and Architecture

KYOTO
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BEYOND
In fulfillment,
As Part of Submission for
Sustainable Development,
Parag Kadam
Pragya Gupta
Under the Guidance of,
Prof. Archana Gaikwad
Index
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Introduction to UNFCC
3
Introduction to Kyoto Protocol
4
Kyoto - Timeline
5
Parties to Kyoto Protocol
6
Brief History of Kyoto Protocol
8
Aim of Kyoto Protocol
11
Understanding the Protocol
12
Flexible Mechanisms
17
India And Kyoto
24
The Debate
27
Bibliography
30
UNFCC
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC or FCCC) is an international
environmental treaty negotiated at the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED), informally known as the Earth Summit, held
in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992. The
objective of the treaty is to "stabilize greenhouse gas
concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would
prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the
climate system".
The treaty itself set no binding limits on
greenhouse gas emissions for individual
countries and contains no enforcement
mechanisms. In that sense, the treaty is
considered legally non-binding.
Instead, the treaty provides a framework for
negotiating specific international treaties (called
"protocols") that may set binding limits on greenhouse
gases. 1
In 1997, the Kyoto Protocol was concluded and
established legally binding obligations for
developed countries to reduce their greenhouse
gas emissions.
Introduction
• The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked
to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change, which commits its Parties by setting
internationally binding emission reduction targets.
• Recognizing that developed countries are principally
responsible for the current high levels of GHG emissions
in the atmosphere as a result of more than 150 years of
industrial activity, the Protocol places a heavier burden on
developed nations under the principle of "common but
differentiated responsibilities.“ 2
• There are 192 parties to the convention, including 191
states (all the UN members, except Andorra, Canada,
South Sudan and the United States) and the European
Union.3 The United States signed but did not ratify the
Protocol and Canada withdrew from it in 2011.4 The
Protocol was adopted by Parties to the UNFCCC in 1997,
and entered into force in 2005.5
Adopted in Kyoto, Japan
and are referred
to as the
"Marrakesh
Accords.”
Its first commitment
period started in
2008 and ended in
2012
Entered into force
on 16 February
2005
on 11 December
1997 The detailed rules for
the implementation
adopted at COP 7 in
Marrakesh, Morocco, in
2001
The second commitment
is between 2013-2020.
But this amendment has
(as of January 2013) not
entered into legal force.
Kyoto Protocol participation map
(commitment period: 2013-2020)
Parties; Annex I & II countries with binding targets
Parties; Developing countries without binding targets*
States not Party to the Protocol
Signatory country with no intention to ratify the treaty, with no binding targets
Countries that have renounced the Protocol, with no binding targets*
Parties with no binding targets in the second period, which previously had targets*
*Note: As part of the 2010 Cancun agreements, 76 developed and developing
countries have made voluntary pledges to control their emissions of
greenhouse gases.
Annex I countries
Annex II countries
Non Annex I countries
Annex II countries are a
sub-group of the Annex I
countries
Parties to UNFCCC are classified as
– Industrialized countries and
economies in transition
countries
– Developed countries which
pay for costs of developing
countries
– Developing countries
History
1988 The Intergovernmental
Change (IPCC) is formed .
Panel
on
Climate
A conference held in Toronto (not affiliated with the IPCC) recommends a set
of political targets to reduce anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide. The
conference recommends that by 2005, industrialized countries should reduce
their carbon dioxide emissions by 20 percent, compared to 1988 levels.
1990 IPCC issues a report declaring its certainty that
human activity is resulting in pollutants that will intensify the
greenhouse effect.
1992 The UN Conference on the Environment and
Development is held in Rio de Janeiro. It results in the
Framework Convention on Climate Change ("FCCC" or
"UNFCCC") among other agreements.
1995 Parties to the FCCC meet in Berlin (the 1st
Conference of Parties (COP) to the UNFCCC) to outline
specific targets on emissions.
History
1997 Parties conclude the Kyoto Protocol in Kyoto Japan,
in which they agree to the broad outlines of emissions
targets.
2000 Efforts to accommodate U.S. and Australian
objections to the Kyoto draft agreement fail at a meeting of
signatories in the Hague. The U.S. Senate votes
unanimously against any binding agreement that does not
set binding goals for developing countries, as well.
2001 President George W. Bush, following the Senate's
lead, withdraws U.S. endorsement of the Kyoto Protocol. In
November, the COP meeting in Marrakesh finalizes the
provisions of the Kyoto Protocol without U.S support.
2002 Russia and Canada ratify the Kyoto Protocol to the
FCCC bringing the treaty into effect on 16 February 2005.
2004 Several countries had ratified the Kyoto Protocol,
including Japan, Canada, New Zealand, and most
European signatories. Collectively, these ratifying countries
represented approximately 44 percent of the total
greenhouse gas emissions produced in 1990 – only 11
percent shy of the 55 percent target cited in the Protocol’s
History
2004 Russian President Vladimir Putin announced his
government would indeed pass the agreement, ensuring
the Protocol would come into effect in 2005.
On February 16, 2005 The Kyoto Protocol formally came
into effect, committing key industrialized countries,
including Canada, to specific targets for reducing or limiting
their greenhouse gas emissions between 2008 and 2012
2011 Canada withdraws from the protocol under the Harper
government, having greatly increased emissions over the
target, citing the intent to create a made-in-Canada solution
Aim
The main aim of the Kyoto Protocol is to contain emissions
of the main anthropogenic (i.e., human-emitted)
greenhouse gases (GHGs) in ways that reflect underlying
national differences in GHG emissions, wealth, and
capacity to make the reductions.6 The treaty follows the
main principles agreed in the original 1992 UN Framework
Convention.
The Protocol establishes a structure of rolling emission
reduction commitment periods. It set a timetable starting in
2006 for negotiations to establish emission reduction
commitments for a second commitment period.7
The Concept
Some of the principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol
are:
Binding commitments for the Annex I Parties.8 The
commitments were based on the Berlin Mandate, which was
a part of UNFCCC negotiations leading up to the Protocol.
Implementation. In order to meet the objectives of the
Protocol, Annex I Parties are required to prepare policies and
measures for the reduction of greenhouse gases in their
respective countries.
In addition, they are required to increase the absorption of these
gases and utilize all mechanisms available, such as joint
implementation, the clean development mechanism and
emissions trading, in order to be rewarded with credits that would
allow more greenhouse gas emissions at home.
Minimizing Impacts on Developing Countries by establishing
an adaptation fund for climate change.
Accounting, Reporting and Review in order to ensure the
integrity of the Protocol.
Compliance. Establishing a Compliance Committee to
enforce compliance with the commitments under the
Understanding Kyoto
Under the Kyoto Protocol, 37 industrialized countries and
the European Community (the European Union-15, made
up of 15 states at the time of the Kyoto negotiations)
commit themselves to binding targets for GHG emissions.8
The targets apply to the four greenhouse gases:
carbon dioxide (CO2),
methane (CH4),
nitrous oxide (N2O),
sulphur hexafluoride (SF6),
and two groups of gases,
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
and perfluorocarbons (PFCs).9
The six GHG are translated into CO2 equivalents in
determining reductions in emissions.10 These reduction
targets are in addition to the industrial gases,
chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, which are dealt with under
the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the
Ozone Layer.
Top Ten Emitters
4%
3% 3%
24%
6%
7%
7%
8%
23%
15%
China
USA
EU
Indonesia
India
Russia
Brazil
Japan
Canada
Mexico
Understanding Kyoto
Under the Protocol, only the Annex I Parties have
committed themselves to national or joint reduction
targets (formally called "quantified emission limitation and
reduction objectives" (QELRO) – Article 4.1).9 Parties to the
Kyoto Protocol not listed in Annex I of the Convention (the
non-Annex I Parties) are mostly low-income developing
countries, and may participate in the Kyoto Protocol
through the Clean Development Mechanism.
The emissions limitations of Annex I Parties varies between
different Parties. Some Parties have emissions
limitations reduce below the base year level, some
have limitations at the base year level (i.e., no
permitted increase above the base year level), while
others have limitations above the base year level.
Emission limits do not include emissions by international
aviation and shipping.
Flexible Mechanisms
Annex I Parties can achieve their targets by allocating
reduced annual allowances to major operators within their
borders, or by allowing these operators to exceed their
allocations by offsetting any excess through a mechanism
that is agreed by all the parties to the UNFCCC, such as by
buying emission allowances from other operators which
have excess emissions credits.
The Protocol defines three "flexibility mechanisms" that
can be used by Annex I Parties in meeting their emission
limitation commitments.
The flexibility mechanisms are:
International Emissions Trading (IET)
The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
and Joint Implementation (JI).
IET allows Annex I Parties to "trade" their emissions
(Assigned Amount Units, AAUs, or "allowances" for short)
Flexible Mechanisms
The CDM and JI are called "project-based mechanisms," in
that they generate emission reductions from projects.
The difference between IET and the project-based
mechanisms is that IET is based on the setting of a
quantitative restriction of emissions, while the CDM
and JI are based on the idea of "production" of
emission reductions.
The CDM is designed to encourage production of emission
reductions in non-Annex I Parties, while JI encourages
production of emission reductions in Annex I Parties.
The emission reductions produced by the CDM and JI are both
measured against a hypothetical baseline of emissions that
would have occurred in the absence of a particular emission
reduction project. The emission reductions produced by the
CDM are called Certified Emission Reductions (CERs);
reductions produced by JI are called Emission Reduction
Units (ERUs). The reductions are called "credits" because
they are emission reductions credited against a hypothetical
baseline of emissions.
Green investment Scheme
Green Investment Scheme
A Green Investment Scheme (GIS) refers to a plan for
achieving environmental benefits from trading surplus
allowances (AAUs) under the Kyoto Protocol.
The Green Investment Scheme (GIS), a mechanism in the
framework of International Emissions Trading (IET), is
designed to achieve greater flexibility in reaching the
targets of the Kyoto Protocol while preserving
environmental integrity of IET. However, using the GIS is
not required under the Kyoto Protocol, and there is no
official definition of the term.
Under the GIS a Party to the Protocol expecting that the
development of its economy will not exhaust its Kyoto
quota, can sell the excess of its Kyoto quota units (AAUs)
to another Party. The proceeds from the AAU sales should
be "greened", i.e. channelled to the development and
implementation of the projects either acquiring the
greenhouse gases emission reductions (hard greening) or
building up the necessary framework for this process (soft
greening)
Clean Development
Mechanism
Clean Development Mechanism
This mechanism allows developed (or Annex 1) nations to
receive emission credits towards their own emission targets
by participating in certain projects in developing (or Nonannex 1) countries.
These Clean Development projects must be approved by
members of the Protocol and must contribute to sustainable
development and greenhouse gas emission reductions in
the host developing country.
Between 2001, which was the first year CDM projects could
be registered, and 2012, the end of the Kyoto commitment
period, the CDM is expected to produce some 1.5 billion
tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) in emission
reductions.
Most of these reductions are through renewable energy,
energy efficiency, and fuel switching .
By 2012, the largest potential for production of CERs are estimated in China
(52% of total CERs) and India (16%). CERs( Certified emission reduction)
produced in Latin America and the Caribbean make up 15% of the potential
total, with Brazil as the largest producer in the region (7%).
Clean Development
Mechanism
Under the Clean Development Mechanism, for example,
the Annex 1 nation receives emission credits for reducing
greenhouse gas emission in a developing nation. Hence,
while emissions in the Annex 1 nation have in actuality
remained the same, overall global emissions have
been reduced.
Joint Implementation
Joint Implementation
This mechanism allows Annex 1 nations to receive
emission credits towards their own emission targets by
participating in certain projects with other Annex 1 nations.
These Joint Implementation projects must be approved by
all nations participating in the project, and must either
reduce greenhouse gas emissions or contribute to
enhanced greenhouse gas removal through emission sinks
(i.e. reforestation).
The formal crediting period for JI was aligned with the first
commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol, and did not start
until January 2008 (Carbon Trust, 2009, p. 20).
In November 2008, only 22 JI project had been officially
approved and registered.
The total projected emission savings from JI by 2012 are
about one tenth that of the CDM. Russia accounts for about
two-thirds of these savings, with the remainder divided up
roughly equally between the Ukraine and the EU's New
Member States.
Emission savings include cuts in methane, HFC, and N2O
emissions.
Emissions Trading
Emissions Trading or Carbon Trading
This mechanism allows Annex 1 nations to purchase
emission ‘credits’ from other Annex 1 countries. Some
countries will be below the emission targets assigned to
them under the Protocol and, as such, will have spare
emission credits.
Under the emissions trading system, other nations may
purchase these spare credits and use them towards their
own emission targets.
International Emissions Trading
International Emissions Trading (Article 17 of the Kyoto
Protocol) specifies that Annex I countries be allowed to
trade assigned amount units (AAUs) with each other.
The objective and idea of emissions trading
Through emissions trading, an environmental (quantitative)
target with a defined absolute upper load limit is to be
achieved at minimum cost.
Emitters will be assigned an emissions limit and receive
permission to emit the specified emission quantity. The
emitters receive certificates for the permitted amount of
emissions.
Emissions Trading
Emitters who want to emit amounts exceeding the assigned
amount must obtain an additional certificate for each
additional emissions unit. These can be purchased from
other emitters who do not use up all the certificates
assigned to them.
Through the trading mechanism, a market price for the
emissions certificates is established which reflects the costs
of emission reduction.
Each emitter can decide whether it is cheaper to reduce
emissions through reduction measures or to purchase
certificates for the generated emissions.
For trading purposes, one allowance or CER is
considered equivalent to one metric ton of CO2
emissions.
These allowances can be sold privately or in the
international market at the prevailing market price.
Emissions Trading
Procedure
 A central authority sets a limit / cap on amount of
pollutant that can be emitted.
 A company/ industry are issued emission permits and
are required to hold an equivalent number of
allowances ( credits).
 Total amount of allowances and credits can not exceed
the cap.
 The transfer of allowances and credits is referred as a
trade.
 Buyer is paying a charge for polluting while seller is
being rewarded for having reduced emissions.
 Those can easily reduce emissions most cheaply will
achieve pollution reduction at lower possible cost.
 This system is called as cap and trade or carbon
trading.
India And Kyoto
India, whose economy has grown by 8-9 per cent a year in
recent years, is one of the world's top polluters, contributing
around 4-5 % of global greenhouse gas emissions as its
consumption of fossil fuels gathers pace.
As a developing nation, India is not required to cut
emissions (said to be rising by between 2 and 3 per cent a
year)under the Kyoto Protocol, despite mounting pressure
from environmental groups and industrialized nations.
India made it clear on September 16, 2011 that it wanted
extension of the current Kyoto Protocol on emission cuts,
but said it would not accept any further legally binding
emission framework.
As a developing country, India has already taken
substantial and ambitious actions at great cost. The issue
of a legally binding agreement has acquired huge political
sensitivities in India
Although around 80 per cent of world growth in carbon
emissions is coming from fast growing economies like India
and China, India has argued that even if India's economy
continues to grow at current levels for the next decade or
two, its per capita emissions would still be below those of
the developed countries.
India And Kyoto
Without any financial and technological assistance,
countries like India will not be willing to open their efforts at
greenhouse emissions reductions to international
verification.
Climate change talks not only involve competing economic
interests but also raise matters of broad principle for the
West's relationship with developing nations
India has committed itself to a mandatory fuel efficiency cap
to begin in 2011, a change in its energy matrix whereby
renewable sources will account for 20 per cent of India's
power usage by 2020 as well as announced an ambitious
solar energy plan.
THE DEBATE
In a Wall Street Journal Report on Environment, Steven
Hayward makes the case that carbon energy use is central
to the world economic prospects and emission reductions
are too expensive, while Robert Stavins argues that gradual
reductions are both possible and affordable. 6
Not having the USA ratify the Kyoto Protocol is a big
problem as the USA also roughly contributes a quarter of
the world’s greenhouse gases.
A number of countries have not so far met the Kyoto
Protocol emission targets.
Current projections call for the need of much bigger cuts in
emissions than the Kyoto Protocol requires.
The United Nations now predict a rise of 10% in
greenhouse emissions since 1990.
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However its symbolic value may be its greatest asset. Any
effort is better than none.
THE DEBATE
World Bank (2010) commented on how the Kyoto Protocol
had only had a slight effect on curbing global emissions
growth. The treaty was negotiated in 1997, but in 2006,
energy-related carbon dioxide emissions had grown by
24%.[World Bank (2010) also stated that the treaty had
provided only limited financial upport to developing
countries to assist them in reducing their emissions and
adapting to climate change. 10
Some environmentalists have supported the Kyoto Protocol
because it is "the only game in town," and possibly because
they expect that future emission reduction commitments
may demand more stringent emission reductions (Aldy et
al.., 2003, p. 9).11 In 2001, seventeen national science
academies stated that ratification of the Protocol
represented a "small but essential first step towards
stabilising atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse
gases.“12 Some environmentalists and scientists have
criticized the existing commitments for being too weak
(Grubb, 2000, p. 5).13
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. (n.d.).
Retrieved
from
http://en.wikipedia.org/:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention
_on_Climate_Change
2. UNFCCC Kyoto Protocol. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://unfccc.int/:
http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/items/2830.php
3. "Status of Ratification of the Kyoto Protocol". United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change. Retrieved 15 August
2011.
4. StarTribune - Canada formally pulls out of Kyoto Protocol on climate
change Retrieved 4 May 2012.
5. "Status of ratification". UNFCC Homepage. Retrieved 5 June 2012
6. Grubb, M. (2004). "Kyoto and the Future of International Climate
Change Responses: From Here to Where?" (PDF). International
Review for Environmental Strategies 5 (1): 2 (PDF version).
7. Grubb & Depledge 2001, p. 269
8. "Article 2". The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change. Retrieved 15 November 2005. "Such a level should be
achieved within a time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt
naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production is not
threatened and to enable economic development to proceed in a
sustainable manner"
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
9. "Industrialized countries to cut greenhouse gas emissions by
5.2%" (Press release). United Nations Environment Programme. 11
December 1997. Retrieved 6 August 2007.
10. "5. Integrating development into a global climate regime" (PDF), ,
in World Bank 2010, p. 233
11. Aldy, J.E. et al. (9 September 2003). "Thirteen Plus One: A
Comparison of Global Climate Policy Architectures". Climate
Policy 3 (3): 373–397.doi:10.1016/j.clipol.2003.09.004. Retrieved 2
April 2010.
12. "The Science of Climate Change (editorial)", Science 292 (5520), 18
May 2001: 1261, doi:10.1126/science.292.5520.1261
13. Grubb, M. (April 2000). The Kyoto Protocol: An Economic Appraisal.
FEEM
Working
Paper
No.
30
2000.
SSRN. doi:10.2139/ssrn.229280. SSRN 229280.
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