Transcript Carriers

Energy carriers
Energy carriers in our daily lives
Biomass (food, fuel, fertilizer)
Fossil fuels: oil (liquid), coal (solid), natural
gas
Heat (solar, geothermal)
Electricity: through electric grid
Electricity: through battery or fuel cell
(chemical energy)
Uses for specific carriers
What can you use for heat?
Solar radiation, geothermal, burn biomass or any fossil fuel,
dissipate electricity in a resistance => EVERYTHING
What can you use for transportation?
Yourself (biomass), animals (biomass), oil (cars,buses, trains,
planes), compressed or liquid natural gas (cars, buses, trains),
coal (trains), electricity (grid transportation: bus, tram, train),
electric unit (battery or fuel cell) => almost everything.
Then why is oil the best transportation fuel ever?
What can you use for light? Electricity, oil, gas, biomass
What can you use for appliances?
ELECTRICITY
Important properties of energy carriers
1) Abundance
2) Availability
3) Cost (economic)
4) Rate of supply (renewable vs. fossil)
5) Energy density (MJ/kg)
6) Time-dependence of supply
7) Storage
8) Distribution
9) Production: centralized or distributed
10) Environmental impacts (local: pollution / global: climate)
Why does energy matter?
Not everyone has enough energy (ACCESS)
Some energy supplies are uncertain (SECURITY)
Some energy sources are in finite global supply
(SCARCITY)
Energy sources are not equally geographically distributed
(DISTRIBUTION)
Some energy sources are intermittent (STORAGE)
Local environmental impacts from energy use
(POLLUTION)
Environmental impacts from energy use are changing the
earth's climate (GLOBAL CATASTROPHE)
Energy densities
What do you estimate the density of different
energy carriers to be?
For food: need ~ 2500 kcal/day
1000 kcal ~ 4 MJ
so ~ 10 MJ per day.
How many kg of rice or pasta (carbohydrates) or
cookies (carbohydrates + fat) do you need to eat
per day?
0.75 kg or rice or pasta: 15 MJ/kg or 360 kcal/100g
0.5 kg of cookies:
20 MJ/kg or 500 kcal/100g
Energy densities of selected carriers
Food dry weight:
fat = 39.2 MJ/kg
protein = carbohydrates = 17.2 MJ/kg
(reason why food labels are in weight, not calories)
Biomass: 10 MJ/kg (green wood) => 20 MJ/kg (sugar cane
bagasse, cotton hulls, oven-dried wood)
Coal: 17 MJ/kg (lignite) => 31.4 MJ/kg (anthracite)
Oil: 42 MJ/kg (crude) => 46 MJ/kg (kerosene)
Methane: 55.5 MJ/kg
Hydrogen: 142 MJ/kg
Uranium in light water reactor:
443'000 - 3'456'000 (enriched 3.5%) MJ/kg
food
biomass
food
biomass
USA per capita energy consumption 1795-2006
(does not include biomass for food)
Coal
Natural gas
Petroleum
Nuclear
Hydroelectric
Geothermal
Solar PV
Wind
Wood
Total
350
300
250
200
150
100
2005
1991
1977
1963
1949
1935
1921
1907
1893
1879
1865
1851
1837
1823
0
1809
50
1795
Energy in GJ per capita
400
Year
2000 Watt society
Sources: USA Energy Information Agency Annual Energy Review 2005 , USA Census Measuring America (2002)
USA per capita energy consumption 1795-2006
400
Total fossil
Nuclear
Total renewable
Total
Energy in GJ per capita
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
Year
Sources: USA Energy Information Agency Annual Energy Review 2006 , USA Census Measuring America (2002)
2005
1991
1977
1963
1949
1935
1921
1907
1893
1879
1865
1851
1837
1823
1809
1795
0
USA total energy consumption 1795-2006
Total fossil
100
Energy in ExaJoules
Population in 100%
Nuclear
Total renewable
80
Total
Population (100% = 2006)
60
40
20
Year
Sources: USA Energy Information Agency Annual Energy Review 2006 , USA Census Measuring America (2002)
2005
1991
1977
1963
1949
1935
1921
1907
1893
1879
1865
1851
1837
1823
1809
1795
0
Austria Domestic Energy
Consumption 1830-1995
Includes food biomass
Source: Krausmann 2002
Comparison of per capita DEC in the
UK and Austria 1830-2000
Source: Krausmann 2007
Includes food biomass
Fossil Abundance
Proved reserves (BP 2008)
20,000
Oil: Proved reserves
Exajoules
Natural gas: Proved reserves
15,000
Coal: Proved reserves
10,000
5,000
0
1981
1986
1991
1996
2001
2006
Abundance, but for how long?
Calculate R/P = Reserves / Production
Result is years left if nothing changes (no
new discoveries, no change in production
rates)
In 1980, R/P for oil 30 years, gas 60 years
In 2007, R/P for oil 40 years, gas 60 years
(???)
For coal: 2007 R/P is 145 years, down from
180 in 2004
OIL
Abundance, access, distribution: OIL
Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2008
Peak Oil?
Prediction of Marion King
Hubbert, 1956
Hubbert's peak
Zittel, Schindler et al 2004:
(non-OPEC countries)
Proven reserves: no peak oil.
Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2008
Reasons for increase: extraction/prospection improvements?
inflation of reported reserves for OPEC quotas ?
or to avert economic loss of confidence?
EIA Nominal
EIA "Real" 2000
Using 2000 CPI
Using 2006 CPI
19
68
19
70
19
72
19
74
19
76
19
78
19
80
19
82
19
84
19
86
19
88
19
90
19
92
19
94
19
96
19
98
20
00
20
02
20
04
20
06
Price of one barrel in USD
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
World crude oil prices, 1968-2006
Source: EIA 2007 http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/oilprice.html
CPI from http://oregonstate.edu/cla/polisci/faculty/sahr/sahr.htm
Own calculation
Crude oil prices, constant $
120
2007 $ per barrel
100
80
60
40
20
0
1860
1880
1900
1920
1940
1960
1980
2000
Source http://www.wtrg.com/prices.htm
Any reasons for fluctuations?
Source: 2008 http://futures.tradingcharts.com/
More recent prices: light crude futures
This week
World-wide oil trade
Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2004
Transportation of oil: ship, pipeline, truck
Kazakhstan, source USA Energy Information Agency 2004-2005
Eurasia and pipelines
Source USA EIA 2004-2005
Pipelines, continued
Source USA CIA 2003 (via EIA)
Geopolitics and pipelines: blue stream
Source: Radio Free Europe Free Liberty
Coal
“Down the mine” by Orwell (1937)
“ Our civilization, pace Chesterton, is founded on coal, more completely
than one realizes until one stops to think about it. The machines that
keep us alive, and the machines that make machines, are all directly or
indirectly dependent upon coal. In the metabolism of the Western world
the coal-miner is second in importance only to the man who ploughs the
soil. He is a sort of caryatid upon whose shoulders nearly everything
that is not grimy is supported. For this reason the actual process by
which coal is extracted is well worth watching, if you get the chance and
are willing to take the trouble. “
“ There are still living a few very old women who in their youth have
worked underground, with the harness round their waists, and a chain that
passed between their legs, crawling on all fours and dragging tubs of
coal. They used to go on doing this even when they were pregnant. And
even now, if coal could not be produced without pregnant women dragging
it to and fro, I fancy we should let them do it rather than deprive
ourselves of coal. “
Integral text online: http://www.george-orwell.org/Down_The_Mine/0.html
King Coal
Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2007
Lots of coal left: what does it mean?
Coal is currently mainly used for electricity
generation (thermal power plants).
When oil runs out or becomes too expensive,
coal can be transformed into a high energy
density liquid through the process of "coal
liquefaction" (already done by the Nazis and
Apartheid South Africa).
Break-even costs for coal liquefaction?
estimated at 30-60 $/barrel (currently above
60 $/barrel since mid-2005).
Prediction difficulties
Source: Nebojsa Nakicenovic, UNU, 1997
Evolution of CO2/energy?
CO2 emissions per unit primary commercial energy
17.6
Tons Carbon / Terajoule
17.4
17.2
17.0
16.8
16.6
16.4
16.2
16.0
15.8
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
Cumulative CO2 emissions
Cumulative CO2 fossil emissions since 1965
1,000,000
900,000
Million tonnes
800,000
700,000
600,000
500,000
400,000
300,000
200,000
100,000
0
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
Electricity and electricity mixes
Uses: electricity
Important properties of energy carriers
1) Abundance
2) Availability
3) Rate of supply (renewable vs. fossil)
4) Energy density (MJ/kg)
5) Time-dependence of supply
6) Storage
7) Distribution
8) Production: centralized or distributed
9) Environmental impacts (risk, pollution)
Electricity: a final energy from many primary sources
Hydraulic (via solar and atmospheric processes and
water pressure turning mechanical turbines)
Nuclear (via supernova nucleosynthesis and
galactic processes, extraction, refining, controlled
fission heating water and turning mechanical
turbines)
Wind (via via solar and atmospheric processes and
air pressure turning mechanical turbines)
Photovoltaic Solar (solar radiation via the
photoelectric effect in high-tech Si chips)
Fossil (Solar radiation, geothermal processes, time,
extraction, refining, burning to heat water and turn
mechanical turbines)
Energy carrier properties for electricity
Energy carrier
Storage
Distribution
Production:
centralized or
distributed
Electricity
Not possible
(except in
repumping
dams)
Requires electric grid
Can be both
Depends on production
mechanism, usually fossil
Gasoline
Possible
Requires tanker
ships, pipelines
VERY LOCAL
Air pollution, water pollution,
climate change
Natural Gas
Possible but
difficult
VERY LOCAL
Air pollution, water pollution,
climate change (but cleaner than
oil)
LOCAL
Air pollution, water pollution,
climate change (much worse than
oil)
Coal
Possible
Possible but difficult
(pipelines, LNG
infrastructure)
Ship, train, truck (no
passive transport like
pipelines over long
distances)
Environmental impacts
Nuclear
Pollution risks
Pollution risks
LOCAL
Waste disposal is unsolved
problem. Uranium itself may be as
toxic as lead.
Solar
Not possible
(except in
plants)
Worldwide, more or
less
Decentralized
Depends on technology choice,
trade-offs in land-use choices.
Wind
Not possible
Sea coast, mountain
ridges
Decentralized
Landscape, usually considered
not very high
Hydro
good storage
large river systems
LOCAL
Ecosystem disruption, methane
CO2 emissions from electricity
Electricity Source
Units
Fossil power plants
Hard Coal (anthracite or
bituminous)
Soft Coal (sub-bituminous
or lignite)
Oil
Natural Gas
Primary
Primary
CO2
energy (nonenergy
emissions
renewable) (renewable)
MJ primary
MJ primary /
k g CO2 /
/MJ final
MJ final
MJ final
3.44
0.03
0.275
3.84
0.01
0.338
3.45
3.1
0.01
0.01
0.238
0.167
Nuclear power plants
3.52
0.01
0.002
Renewable
Wind
Solar Photovoltaic
Hydraulic dam
0.05
0.38
0.01
4
6.5
1.28
0.003
0.020
0.001
Source: EcoInvent Database
What is in coal-generated electricity?
110 times more Particulates per kWh
compared to natural gas
23 times more SO2 per kWh
16 times more mercury per kWh (380 kg/yr for
a 1000 MW plant)
radioactive trace elements
Coal is 1-10 ppm Uranium, 2.5-25 ppm Thorium
Uranium energy density in coal is 25% the
energy density of coal!
Sources: EcoInvent and A. Gabbard, ORNL
Uses: transport
Energy used for transport (IEA)
2000000
1500000
Electricity
Combustible Renewables and Waste
1000000
Natural Gas
Petroleum Products
500000
Coal and Coal Products
05
20
03
20
01
20
99
19
97
19
95
19
93
19
91
19
89
19
87
19
85
19
83
19
81
19
79
19
77
19
75
19
73
19
71
0
19
KiloTonne Oil Equivalent (ktoe)
2500000
Transportation
Growing energy use for transportation
worldwide.
Principally based on petroleum products
Generally two types of transportation:
1) Electric grid + rail or road (tram, train, buses)
2) Liquid fuel-based
– kerosene + airports: planes,
– diesel + ports: ships
– gasoline + diesel + highways + parking: cars, trucks,
buses
3)Animal or human powered.
Metrics for transportation
Personal transportation: passenger*kilometre
Freight transportation:
tonne*kilometre
Source OECD 1996
Primary energy cost of passenger transport
Transport mode
Plane
Car
Bus
Train
Primary energy
MJ / p-km
9.83
3.25
1.87
1.06
CO2 emitted
kg / p-km
0.36
0.18
0.11
0.06
Source EcoInvent Database
Primary energy cost of freight transport
Transport mode
Plane
16tonne truck
32tonne truck
Train
Barge
Ocean Tanker
Primary energy
MJ / t-km
17.71
6.13
2.81
0.75
0.65
0.09
CO2 emitted
kg / t-km
1.11
0.35
0.16
0.04
0.036
0.044
0.04
0.005
0.01
Source EcoInvent Database
The global carbon cycle
What happens when we burn so much fossil fuels?
Climate change in the past
current
level
380 ppm
Agriculture
begins
Homo
Source T. Stocker 2005
Sapiens
appears (Can extend graph to 850'000, T. Stocker 2006)
Climate change in the present
CO2 and energy carriers
Source: J. Siirola, GRC 2006
Causes of CO2 increase in atmosphere
Volcanoes ?
Agriculture / deforestation ?
Burning biomass ?
Burning fossil fuels ?
Sun-driven global warming?
at 380 ppm, CO2 in atmosphere corresponds
to 730 GigaTonnes Carbon (GTC)
or 2650 GigaTonnes CO2 (GTCO2)
(3.664 factor between CO2 and C)
a 30% increase since 1900.
Remember CO2 in
atmosphere is
currently 730 GTC!
Source: J. Siirola, GRC 2006
CO2 content of proved fossil reserves
CO2 in atmosphere at 380 ppm: 2.65e12 tonnes
FUEL
Units
Oil
Anthracite
lignite
Coal
Gas
Total
Proportion to
Reserves current CO2 in
atmosphere
tonnes CO2
percent
7.01E+011
26.45%
1.32E+012
1.45E+012
2.77E+012
104.49%
3.41E+011
12.88%
3.81E+012
143.82%
Production
Consumption
tonnes CO2
1.21E+010
tonnes CO2
1.19E+010
1.66E+010
5.25E+009
3.40E+010
1.69E+010
5.22E+009
3.40E+010
Source for proven reserves: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2006
Food
A few facts about food
In Switzerland, fossil primary energy spent
on food is estimated to be 34 GJ/person/year
Fossil primary energy spent on private
transportation is 42 GJ/person/year
An average person eats 4.75 GJ/person/year in
nutritional calories
Primary fossil / nutritional energy = 7
Source: Keanzig et Jolliet 2006, Consommation respectueuse de l'environnement, Rapport pour l'OFEV
Swiss agriculture and climate change
Source BLW, Rapport Agricole 2003
Agriculture and climate change (2)
Source BLW, Rapport Agricole 2003
Methane et Nitrous oxide
Methane = CH4 (natural gas)
8% of CO2-eq. in Switz., of which 63% from agriculture
1 kg CH4 = 21 kg CO2-eq.
In agriculture, methane comes from animal digestion and
organic fertilizer.
Nitrous oxide = N2O
7% of CO2-eq in Switz., of which 72% from agriculture
1 kg N2O = 310 kg CO2-eq.
Soil processes and various fertilizer.
Agriculture world-wide has emitted as many greenhouse
gases as fossil fuel burning since 1900.
Livestock world-wide emits as much GHG/yr as global
transport.
(Source: FAO 2006, Livestock’s long shadow)
8
Source BLW, Rapport Agricole 2003
Cause of the reduction of Swiss agricultural
methane
Source BLW, Rapport Agricole 2005
Conséquence
Plus de farines animales: donc fourrage
importé:
Source BLW, Rapport Agricole 2002
Dont soja du Brésil et de l'Argentine
(déforestation, perte de biodiversité)
Example of an industrial symbiosis with a
bad ending …
Feeding animals with animal remains
Result: Spongiform encephalitis – Mad cow
disease.
Soybean in Brazil
Source M. Shean, United States Department of Agriculture, 2004
Soybean area in Brazil (2)
Source M. Shean, United States Department of Agriculture, 2004