Transcript PowerPoint Presentation - Developing an Ear for Music

Chapter 5–Instruments and Voices
Tutorial 2 – Instruments and Voices:
Tone Colour in Music
Introduction
The variety of vocal and instrumental sounds is sometimes likened to a painter’s palette, and the
term ‘tone colour’ expresses this metaphor. The word ‘timbre’ refers to the quality of a sound which
distinguishes it from all others.
Each vocal or instrumental colour has its own particular ability to evoke certain emotional qualities or
associations. Some instruments have a wider range of applications than others in this respect. For
instance, the plaintiveness of the oboe’s sound in the second movement of Symphony No. 4 by
Tchaikovsky would be difficult to reproduce on any other instrument. It is similarly difficult to conceive
of another instrument having the same effect as the cello in Saint-Saëns’ The Swan from Carnival of
the Animals. Selecting the appropriate instrumental timbre is an important aspect of the composer’s
art.
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Listen to music example 36: excerpt from
Tchaikovsky’s Symphony No. 4, second movement.
Listen to music example 37: excerpt from
Saint-Saëns’ The Swan.
Some instruments cover a broad spectrum of capability in timbral resources. A ready example is the
organ, whose sounds stretch between a whisper and the ‘physically overwhelming composite sound of
the full organ’ (Haas 1987, p. 38).
Differences in tone quality arise as a result of a combination of acoustic factors, such as variations in
the ‘waveforms’ of instruments (figure 5.2), and discrepancies in a quality known as the ‘starting
transient’. This is caused by the fact that sounds are generated by different methods on diverse
instruments and by using various playing techniques. For instance, plucking a string is a rapid method
of setting up a vibration, whereas bowing leads to a slower start to the note. Indeed, the whole
vibration pattern of a bowed string is different from that of a plucked string.
Bowing falls into the category of ‘stick-slip’ motion and permits energy to be fed in continuously
so as to produce a continuous note. The frictional force between two stationary surfaces [as in
plucking] is different from that which exists when they are sliding over each other. Stick-slip
motion involves this principle. When the bow is placed on the string and drawn to one side, the
static frictional force is quite substantial and the string can move a considerable distance laterally
before the elasticity of the string overcomes the frictional force and the string slips along the
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bow. Immediately the dynamic frictional force is much lower and although the bow continues to
move in its original direction the string can slide over it; the string moves rapidly across to the
other side of its undisplaced line position until the elastic forces bring it to rest; it once again
‘sticks’ to the bow and the cycle repeats.
(Sadie 1980, vol. 17, p. 554 )
As this quotation illustrates, the problem of defining timbre is complex and has exercised the minds of
musicologists considerably.
Figure 5.1 Chart showing oscilloscopic waveforms:
(a) waveform produced by a treble recorder sounding C',
(b) the same note bowed on a violin,
(c) the same note on a clarinet,
(d) waveform made by mixing a group of high-pitched tones
In music example 3 (opposite), the clarinet is played first
and the violin is played second.
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Other factors which determine timbre are the differences in ‘envelope shape’ of various instruments
discussed earlier, and the nature of diverse ‘formants’ or resonating parts of instruments which ‘develop’
or amplify the sound produced by the sound generator (e.g. the vibrating string or reed etc.).
Figure 5.2 Chart of initial waveforms (starting transients)
of several instruments: (a) a bowed string, (b) a plucked string,
(c) a note on a flute, (d) a note on a reed-driven pipe
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Vocal timbres
Certain gross differences between vocal timbres exist, for example those between soprano, alto, tenor
and bass, brought about largely by the relative sizes of the larynx or ‘voice-box’. A large larynx will
produce a lower sound than a smaller one, in much the same way that a double bass sounds lower
than a violin, and the longer, thicker strings at the bass end of a piano sound lower than the thinner and
shorter treble strings. In other words, size is a major determinant of timbre.
We are all capable of producing a wide range of musical pitches by adjusting the muscles that affect
our vocal cords. Increasing muscle tension shortens the vocal cords and produces a higher pitch.
Singing styles also vary according to cultural preferences; sometimes an open-throated, relaxed style is
prized (Western European tradition), while other singers (e.g. Chinese and Javanese) favour a
somewhat close-throated sound which may seem strident or nasal to Western ears. Twentieth-century
composers in the European tradition have exploited many more of the voice’s possibilities than did their
forebears.
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Voice types in Western music
The following list of Western voice types includes a representative operatic role and aria (song) in
brackets:
1 Dramatic soprano (Elisabeth in Wagner’s Tannhäuser, ‘Dich, teure Halle’).
2 Lyric soprano (Countess in Mozart’s The Marriage of Figaro, ‘Dove Sono’).
3 Coloratura soprano (Queen of the Night in Mozart’s The Magic Flute, ‘Der Holle Rache’).
4 Dramatic mezzo-soprano (Carmen in Bizet’s Carmen, ‘Habanera’).
5 Lyric contralto (Angel in Mendelssohn’s oratorio Elijah, ‘O Rest in the Lord’).
6 Dramatic tenor (Lohengrin in Wagner’s Lohengrin, ‘In fernem Land’).
7 Lyric tenor (Nadir in Bizet’s The Pearl Fishers, ‘Serenade’).
8 Dramatic baritone (Scarpia in Puccini’s Tosca, ‘Ella verra’).
9 Lyric baritone (Germont in Verdi’s La Traviata, ‘Di Provenza il mar’).
10 Bass (Sarastro in Mozart’s The Magic Flute, ‘O Isis und Osiris’).
Try to listen to some of these arias (songs).
Listen to music example 38:
a baritone singing a German art song (lied).
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This is by no means the complete listing of human voice types. Musical styles other than opera have
different requirements; for instance, with the use of the microphone by popular vocalists, there is less
need for performers in ‘pop’ idioms to project their voices in the same manner as an operatic singer.
The intensity of pressure on the vocal cords is lessened. The middle-of-the-range in ‘head voice’ is
favoured by popular vocalists in many styles, e.g. ‘crooners’ and folk singers. (There are, naturally,
notable exceptions; e.g. Rod Stewart.)
Different voice requirements again are brought into play by some contemporary composers of
‘classical’ music.
Listen to music example 39: the soprano Cathy Berberian,
in John Cage’s Aria and Fontana Mix.
In music example 39, the singer is required to take leaps which might be considered not quite de
rigeur by singers of music from earlier ‘periods’.
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Instrumental timbres
In the case of an instrument, the method by which the sound is generated is a major factor in
determining its timbre. For example, a bowed string (violin) timbre is readily distinguishable from the
so-called lip ‘reed’ timbre of a trumpet or trombone. The material from which an instrument is
constructed seems to make a contribution too, with metal possessing different sound production
properties from wood. For now, it is enough to call attention to the range of possible timbres
(including those produced by electronic instruments) available to contemporary composers.
One method by which instruments are categorised is according to their means of producing sound.
This classification, devised by the musicologists Erich von Hornbostel and Curt Sachs in 1914, has
been adopted in this Study Guide.
Chordophones
This category includes all the instruments that produce sound through the vibration of strings, be
they bowed, plucked or strummed. In the symphony orchestra, instruments of the violin family
constitute a very important element of the overall sound. From highest to lowest in pitch, the
instruments in this group are the violin, viola, violoncello (cello) and double bass.
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Figure 5.3 Playing positions for (a) violin, (b) cello, (c) double bass
© kamellia.net
© Eric Webster
© Alan Blackwell
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Figure 5.4 Comparison of pitch ranges of stringed instruments
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Figure 5.5 Diagram of a violin:
(a) tailpiece
(b) end-pin block
(c) waist,
(d) sound-post,
(e) bridge,
(f) brass bar,
(g) neck plate or button
(h) side or ribs,
(i) back,
(j) belly,
(k) fingerboard,
(l) neck,
(m) tuning peg
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You will see from figure 5.5 that a violin is essentially four strings of varying ‘gauge’ (thickness)
attached, at one end, to the ‘tail’ of the sound-box resonator, and to tuning pegs, which are connected
to the ‘finger-board’, at the other. As they cross the sound-box, the strings make contact with a ‘bridge’
which conveys the vibrations from the string to the resonating chamber which amplifies the sound.
Although capable of being played in various ways, the commonest sounds from chordophones of the
violin family is produced by drawing a bow made of hair across the strings, thus setting up vibrations.
This mode of playing these instruments explains their ‘waisted’ shape: if the sides of a violin’s body or
sound-box were not curved inwards, the bow would make contact with the body and have a deleterious
effect on the sound.
As well as being an important sound in the symphony orchestra, the double bass is an important
instrument in jazz, where the player usually plucks the strings (pizzicato).
Listen to music examples 40, 37, 41 and 8: brief excerpts of solo violin,
cello and bass, including an example of a jazz bass playing Miles Davis’s ‘So What’.
Track 40
Track 37
Track 41
Track 8
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Composers have long been able to call upon a range of performance techniques in order to realise their
expressive ambitions. The bowing of stringed instruments is a classic case in point as, in addition to
plain bowing, a player might specifically be asked to perform in one of the following ways (among
others):
martellato: indicating a ‘hammered’ stroke, played with very short bows at the point; each
stroke is released suddenly and forcefully.
spiccato: calls for a short stroke, played in rapid tempo in the middle of the bow in such a
way that the bow bounces slightly from the string.
tremolo: primarily an orchestral effect, it is produced by moving the bow back and forth in
short and extremely rapid strokes, on the same note;
sul ponticello: a directive to the string player to bow very close to the bridge of the
instrument. (The ‘bridge’ is the small piece of timber across which the strings are stretched
and which transmits the vibrations from the strings to the instrument’s sound box.) The
resultant effect is nasal and somewhat fragile;
col legno: the player should strike the string with the stick of the bow instead of the hair.
The harp is another chordophone often found in the symphony orchestra. Its sound is made exclusively
by plucking forty-seven strings of varying lengths (and pitch) which are stretched across a frame. In the
nineteenth century, Frenchman Sebastien Erard invented a system of seven pedals for the harp which
enabled the player to adjust the pitch of all the strings. These pedals made it possible for harpists to
play the full range of the chromatic scale and thus perform with other, more flexible instruments.
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Generally, two different colours (e.g. red and blue) are used to distinguish strings of one basic pitch
from another. The harp performs melody and chords very effectively, but one of its most characteristic
orchestral sounds is the glissando or rapid sliding of the fingers across the surface of the strings.
Representatives of the harp family are found in many world cultures.
Figure 5.6 A harp in performance
Listen to music example 42:
the sound of a harp
© Laura Gallagher
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The guitar, banjo, mandolin and ukulele are other instruments which belong in this category. These all
have ‘frets’ (ridges) on the fingerboard which guide the player’s hands to produce appropriate pitches.
They, or instruments like them, are usually plucked or strummed and occur in folk music idioms in
various parts of the world.
Figure 5.7
Guitar (banjo etc.) in performance
Listen to music example 43:
the ‘classical’ guitar.
© Adrian Sannier
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Keyboard instruments
The pianoforte (literally meaning ‘soft and loud’, indicating the instrument’s capacity to perform at both
ends of the dynamic spectrum) is a special kind of chordophone. Its strings are struck by felt-covered
hammers activated by a keyboard.
Figure 5.8
Action of modern
upright piano
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The ‘piano’ is known in two forms, the ‘grand piano’ and the ‘upright piano’. In the former, the strings are
stretched over the sound-board in the horizontal plane, the hammers striking the strings from below. In
the ‘upright piano’ the strings and sound-board are assembled vertically with hammers striking from the
‘front’ of the instrument, nearest the player. Keyboards have been applied to various mechanisms
through the ages and several of the resulting instruments were chordophones. The harpsichord, a
forerunner of the pianoforte, consists of a keyboard connected to devices called ‘jacks’ which have
plectra to pluck the instrument’s strings from below. Other instruments which employed the same
mechanism were the spinet and the virginal. The piano has two advantages over the harpsichord: first,
the player’s touch can vary the intensity of volume as required; and secondly, it can sustain a ‘singing’
tone very well because the sound is not damped (vibrations ceased) until the player’s finger leaves the
note.
Figure 5.9 (a) Spinet, (b) virginal, (c) harpsichord
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In the fifteenth century, an instrument called a clavichord was developed in which the keyboard
activated small brass wedges or ‘tangents’ which struck the strings, causing them to sound. It was a
‘small’ sound.
Figure 5.10 A clavichord
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The two keyboard instruments which are not chordophones are the organ and the celesta. The
celesta’s keys are connected via a piano action (see fig. 5.8) to hammers that strike metal bars hanging
inside the instrument, while organs use compressed air in reed pipes and flue pipes (see fig. 5.11) as
sound generators.
Figure 5.11 Two types of organ pipes: (a) flue pipe, (b) reed pipe
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Most organs have a pedalboard (a keyboard worked by the feet) and at least two manuals or
keyboards, each of which controls its own ‘division’ of the whole instrument.
To vary the tone colour the player can select by means of drawstops different sets or
‘ranks’, of pipes from within each division of the organ. The tone colour depends on the
types of pipes to which the particular stop admits air.
(Rowley 1977, p. 103)
Listen to music examples 44, 31, 45 and 46: the sound of (a) a harpsichord, (b) a piano, (c) a
celesta, and (d) a ‘pipe’ organ.
Track 44
Track 31
Track 45
Track 46
Reference to the organ, an instrument which relies on wind, brings us to another category of
instruments.
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Aerophones
As the title suggests, the members of this category are all instruments in which the sound is produced
by the player breathing, sometimes forcefully, through a tube and causing a column of air to vibrate.
The earliest aerophones were possibly animal horns or large shells, but in the modern Western
orchestra, wind instruments are divided into families according to whether they are made of brass or
wood.
The brass family
In order of pitch from highest to lowest, the brass family consists of the trumpet, horn, trombone and
tuba. Each instrument has a cup-shaped ‘mouthpiece’ which partially determines its tone quality or
timbre.
Figure 5.12
Mouthpiece shapes of instruments of the brass family
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The sound is generated by the vibration of the player’s lips in contact with the mouthpiece, which is
why the term ‘lip reed’ is sometimes used to describe them. Tone quality and pitch varies in brass
wind instrument due to several factors, not least of which is the length (and to some extent the width)
of the tubing: the longer the tube, the lower the pitch. The other equally important factor is the tension
of the player’s lips. By adjusting this, a skilled player produces a series of harmonics formed by the
‘fundamental’ (lowest), its octave, the fifth above, the double octave, the major third above, the fifth
above the double octave etc. If the fundamental is C, for instance, this harmonic series is:
C c g c' e' g' b' c" d" e" f “ +, etc.
(Sachs 1968, p. 419)
In an individual instrument, the length of the tube in which the air column vibrates can be increased or
decreased by means of valves which introduce extra lengths of tubing, or, in the case of the
trombone, with a slide. Players adjust lip tension at each combination of valves or slide position in
order to be able to play the complete ‘chromatic’ scale.
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Figure 5.13
Relative pitch ranges of brass instruments
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Figure 5.14
The brass family: (a) trombone, (b) tuba, (c) horn, (d) trumpet
© Guenter Quast
© Martin Richards
© Josh Culkin
© [email protected]
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Writing about the timbre of brass instruments, Politoske (1979) says:
The brasses can be bright or ‘brassy’ in timbre, or they can be rich, mellow, and warm.
They add considerable strength to the orchestral sound and are often used for special
flourishes and symbolic effects. Each of the brasses may be muted to produce a nasal
tone, either gentle or raucous, depending on how forcefully the instrument is played.
(Politoske 1979, p. 27)
Listen to music examples 47, 48, 49 and 50:
the sound of (a) a trombone, (b) a tuba, (c) a French horn, (d) a trumpet.
The woodwind family
Although all instruments in this family were at one time made of wood, the modern versions of
some are manufactured in metal. The transverse flute, held horizontally and the sound made by
blowing across a hole near one end, similar to blowing across the top of an empty bottle to get a
sound, is a notable case of a once-wooden instrument which is now made of metal. It has a high
and brilliant tone. The piccolo is simply a shorter, and thus higher-sounding, flute. You can hear
both these instruments in the following examples.
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Listen to music examples 51 and 52:
the sound of a transverse flute,
and the sound of a piccolo.
The clarinet and saxophone are classified as single-reed instruments, because their sounds are
produced by vibrations created when the player presses his or her lips on, and at the same time
blows across, the single, thin piece of cane reed attached to the mouthpiece. Saxophones, of
which there are various types (soprano, alto, tenor, baritone etc.), are also made of metal.
Charlie Parker
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There are several members of the clarinet family, but only four are commonly played. The standard
clarinet is pitched in Bbut some musicians also play a clarinet in A (pitched a semitone lower). A
small clarinet in Eis called for by some composers to provide high penetrating notes, while the
deep reedy sound of the bass clarinet in B(an octave below the standard Bclarinet) has frequently
been used in orchestral music of this century. The clarinet played an important role in jazz,
particularly the pre-1940s style, after which time the alto and tenor saxophones supplanted its
sound. Benny Goodman was one of the most famous jazz clarinettists, while Charlie Parker (alto)
and John Coltrane (tenor) were important saxophonists.
Listen to music example 53: the sound of a clarinet;
and music example 54: the sound of an alto saxophone.
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Figure 5.15 Comparison of pitch ranges of woodwind instruments
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Figure 5.16
(a) A clarinet, (b) a saxophone
© Harry Goldson
© Ken Richardson
Figure 5.17 A double reed
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The remaining instruments of the woodwind family—the oboe, cor anglais, bassoon and
contrabassoon—are again linked by the manner in which their sounds are generated. In these
instruments, the player creates vibrations by blowing through two small pieces of cane reed which
are bound together. The resultant sound is characteristic of such ‘double-reed’ instruments. With a
range similar to the flute, the oboe has the highest range in this sub-group.
Figure 5.18 Double-reed instruments: (a) the oboe, (b) the bassoon
Listen to music examples 36 and 55: the sound of an oboe, and the sound of a bassoon.
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Special effects
A feature of twentieth-century compositions for wind instruments is the use of ‘special effects’.
Mutes of several kinds have been applied to brass instruments and have also been used with
stringed instruments, resulting in a totally altered sonority from that of the ‘open’ instrument. A
technique known as ‘flutter-tongueing’, in which the player literally ‘flutters’ the tongue while
blowing (thus producing a sound like a high-pitched motor mower), is a requirement of some flute
music.
Although far from an exclusively twentieth-century phenomenon, composers in this period of music
history have striven to extend the expressive possibilities of Western orchestral instruments.
Instrumental performers (and singers) have been required to develop techniques which were
previously not considered to produce ‘musical’ sounds. A number of contemporary composers
have experimented with ‘multiphonics’—fingerings which produce ‘chords’ on woodwind
instruments. Others have encouraged the use of ‘circular breathing’, a practice which involves
breathing out and in simultaneously, using the mouth cavity as an airwell, to enable wind players to
perform continuous melody (i.e. without phrase breaks). This is the same breathing technique as
that used in playing the Australian Aboriginal instrument the ‘didjeridu’. Some loss of tone quality
usually occurs due to a change in embouchure (the point of contact of the player’s lips and the
instrument) during the exchange of air.
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Idiophones and membranophones
Instruments in this category are often referred to by the term ‘percussion’, since sounds are made
by their being hit or shaken. Percussion instruments include idiophones such as the gong and the
cymbal in which the entire body of the instrument vibrates, and membranophones such as the
tympani, snare drum and bass drum in which only the skin or membrane vibrates.
Common idiophones include maracas, castanets, claves, wood blocks, cabaza, guiro (all South
American in origin), cow-bell, ‘vibra slap’, triangle, cymbals and gongs.
An example of an Indonesian idiophone: Javanese gongs
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Figure 5.19
Illustrations of several idiophones:
(a) castanets,
(b) steel drum,
(c) maracas,
(d) guiro
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Membranophones important in orchestral music are the bass drum and the ‘snare’, or side drum.
Both are cylindrical, double-skin drums, the smaller side drum having wire ‘snares’ stretched over
the underside skin; these rattle when the uppermost playing skin is struck.
Figure 5.20
(a) Bass drum, (b) snare drum
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The jazz drum kit is a multiple instrument which requires the coordination of both hands and feet in
the production of a range of sounds of great rhythmic complexity. A basic kit consists of a snare
drum, a series of tom-toms (double-skinned drums without snares), a foot-operated bass drum,
suspended cymbals and a hi-hat (a pair of cymbals mounted horizontally, the lower one attached
to a foot controlled spring device which brings it into contact with its partner).
Figure 5.21
Jazz drum kit:
(a) hi-hat,
(b) cymbal,
(c) snare drum,
(d) bass drum,
(e) tom-tom,
(f) tenor drum
Listen to music example 56:
the sounds of various types of drums.
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There are membranophones (e.g. tympani) which can be tuned to play one specific pitch at a time.
Tympani consist of a hemispherical metal shell over the end of which is stretched a skin, secured
around the rim by a wooden hoop. In modern orchestral tympani, the tension of the skin can be
varied by means of a foot-pedal, thereby altering the pitch.
Figure 5.22 Tympani
Some idiophones such as the glockenspiel, xylophone and marimba, which are played by striking
metal or wooden bars with mallets, produce a wide range of pitches in the manner of a keyboard
instrument.
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Figure 5.23
(a) Glockenspiel, (b) xylophone
The German composer and educator, Carl Orff, devised a complement of such percussion
instruments for use in classroom music teaching. Orff’s instruments are smaller than their
orchestral cousins and are constructed so that bars may be removed by a teacher in order to
structure a child’s playing modally and/or tonally. Percussion instruments are particularly well
suited to music education due to their relationship with rhythm and movement, aspects which Orff
felt were ‘organic’ and therefore among the most suitable starting points for musical activity.
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Orff percussion
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‘Early music’ instruments
Most of the instruments of the modern symphony orchestra have evolved from others which, due
to changing fashions and/or technological advances in instrument design, have fallen from use. A
number of these early instruments have been rediscovered in an effort to provide authentic
performances of the music from earlier periods of history.
One example of this is the recorder, necessary to produce authentic performances of music of the
renaissance and baroque periods. An end-blown, ‘flue-pipe’ instrument, the recorder possesses a
distinctive timbre and cannot be adequately replaced in this style of music by the more robust
sound of the modern transverse flute.
Figure 5.24
Recorder and transverse flute
comparison
Listen to music example 57: the recorder,
and compare it with music example 51: the flute.
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‘New Music’ Instruments
As the technology of instrument-making developed, so too did the techniques of playing them. The
two seem to have gone hand-in-hand, the composer’s expressive requirements at times calling the
tune, leading to the development of new or improved instruments. An example of this was the tubalike instrument Wagner devised for his ‘Ring des Nibelungen’ cycle of operas, thus ‘bridging the
gap between the horns and trombones’ (Sadie 1980, vol. 20, p. 152).
Changes in music’s expressive requirements during the twentieth century have led to exploration
of previously unused methods of playing conventional instruments, as well as the invention of new
ways of creating sound.
Electro-acoustic and computer musical instruments
The development of electronic sound recording earlier this century provided composers with
further means of extending the available range of timbral possibilities. Musique concrète (literally,
‘concrete music’) involved sounds from the environment recorded on tape and altered
mechanically and/or electronically to produce new effects. Any sound is usable, and the composer
splices pieces of tape in desired ways, alters the replay direction (e.g. reverse play), adjusts the
speed and volume, and may subject sounds to ‘effects’ such as reverberation and delay in the
course of composing a piece.
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Electronic sound synthesisers enable composers to create entirely new timbres through the
manipulation of the ‘sound envelope’ (see the earlier explanation of ADSR), the wave form, and by
means of filtering sounds in various ways.
Electronic (analogue) synthesisers, which became commercially available in the 1970s, enabled
composers to create entirely new timbres through the manipulation of sound envelopes (see the
earlier explanation of ADSR) and wave forms by means of voltage-controlled filtering. During the
1980s, digital synthesisers, such as the Fairlight Computer Musical Instrument (CMI), became
available and, for the first time, composers were able to assume the role of both creator and
performer in the realisation of their music as ‘studio’ musicians. One of the most significant recent
developments in music technology was the adoption by most music synthesiser manufacturers of a
non-propriety hardware and software standard for interfacing of digital musical instruments to
computers. Called MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Instrument), this system allows musicians
using a MIDI keyboard synthesiser, for example, to send musical data to a computer-based music
sequencer program for digital recording and manipulation, and then to send musical data from a
computer back to MIDI instruments (keyboard synthesisers, sound modules and drum/rhythm
‘machines’) for replay (realisation).
Electronic and digital equipment, including computers and computer musical instruments (CMIs),
offer composers an exciting alternative to conventional instruments. In no sense, however, do
these new timbres replace the more traditional ones. One advantage of technology is that it allows
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the composer to hear a piece sooner than was previously possible. The performance of a work for
conventional instruments depends on the availability of appropriate singers and players, whereas
an electronically or digitally synthesised work may be performed as it is composed. This gives the
composer direct control over the performance, a feature which is usually not available when
working with conventional instruments.
Early analogue music synthesisers: Moog Model 12 synthesiser
and Moog Sonic Six synthesiser
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The Fairlight Computer Musical Instrument (CMI)
Listen to music example 58:
sounds from the Fairlight CMI.
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Computer and MIDI synthesiser system
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Choosing a medium for musical performance
When it comes to deciding on the genre in which to cast expressive ideas, composers have a wide
range of options, although a number of practical constraints do exist. One such constraint is the
availability of instrumentation: since composition generally presupposes the possibility of
performance, it would be senseless to write music for combinations of instruments which are
unavailable, unless of course a composer is content to have pieces existing in the form of
unperformed written music. Many pieces of music have been conceived as a response to a
specific person; for example the composer may have a friend or acquaintance who is a singer or
instrumentalist of particular talents, and he or she wishes to write music to be performed by that
person. Other pieces result from commissions given to composers by wealthy patrons or
employers, or organisations such as opera companies and the administrative bodies which
oversee orchestras. No matter what the motivation for composing, be it altruism or plain hunger, a
rich variety of possibilities present themselves. A comprehensive list of all possible genres would
be inappropriate here. The following will be enough to convey some idea of the range.
Vocal solo
Solo songs may be unaccompanied or accompanied by one or several instruments. The earliest
solo song of which we have any record is found in the music of the troubadours and trouvères, the
poet-musicians of eleventh- and twelfth-century France. Several of their song forms (ballade,
rondeau and virelai) became models for the French chansons of the fourteenth and fifteenth
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centuries. The best-known composers of French chansons were Guillaume Dufay, Guillaume de
Machaut and Johannes Ockeghem.
Listen to music example 59:
Renaissance solo song.
From the time of the Renaissance, interest in the solo song was eclipsed by the rise of opera and
cantata. Not until the nineteenth century did music for solo voice emerge from the shadows with
Schubert’s lieder.
The piano has proved to be a popular supporting instrument in the tradition of Western European
solo song. Supreme examples are the lieder (songs) of composers such as Schubert, Schumann,
Brahms and Wolf. French composer Gabriel Fauré, the French counterpart of Schubert, ‘regarded
the art of song as the joining of two melodic forces—voice and piano—and not as voice with piano
accompaniment’ (Rowley 1977, p. 58).
Listen to music example 38:
an example of German lieder by Schubert.
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During the present century, composers such as Arnold Schoenberg (1874–1951), Luciano Berio
(1925– ) and John Cage (1912–1992 ) have changed the nature of solo song. American singer
Cathy Berberian (1925–1983), whose great voice flexibility was exploited by Berio, Cage and
others, was a major influence on the growth of contemporary ‘art music’.
Listen to music example 39:
Cathy Berberian.
The repertoire of twentieth-century ‘popular’ music is predominantly in the genre of solo vocal,
sometimes with chorus support, and usually with instrumental accompaniment. In the field of jazz,
the principal texture has been homophonic, with many instrumental pieces either beginning life as
solo songs or being transformed into the vocal mode by the addition of lyrics.
Instrumental solo
A literature of unaccompanied solo music exists for practically every instrument imaginable—even
the snare drum. Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750) composed suites for unaccompanied violin
and unaccompanied cello which are still important repertory pieces.
Undoubtedly the most impressive of these bodies of music is that written for solo keyboard
instruments, especially, since about 1750, that for the piano. Due to possessing an ‘orchestral’
range of sonorities, the piano has proven a popular choice as a solo instrument. It has also figured
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heavily in music for other solo instruments and piano, such as Beethoven’s Sonatas for Violin and
Pianoforte (these probably belong to the category ‘Instrumental Ensemble’ since the piano has the
role of equal partner with the violin in these works).
Some compositions for keyboard solo:
1 Contrapuntal (many-voiced) works, e.g. fugues, and French and English suites for
harpsichord by J. S. Bach.
2 Sets of variations, e.g. ‘Seven Variations on “God Save The King” ’ by L. van Beethoven
(see chapter 7).
3 Sonatas, pieces with several contrasting but related movements (see chapter 7).
Vocal ensemble
The body of music in this category is vast. Sacred and secular themes are both represented.
Styles range from ‘plainchant’, the monophonic (single melodic line) unison chanting of the
Christian liturgies, to ‘motets’, whose origins were in sacred vein but which developed into the preeminent form of polyphonic secular art music of the late Middle Ages, to settings of the Mass and
songs of worship such as hymns and anthems for four-part choir (soprano, alto, tenor and bass).
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From about the fourteenth century, settings of many types of non-sacred verse, for various
combinations of voices, which became known as ‘madrigals’, were the most popular form of
secular polyphony. There is also a considerable literature on the arrangements of all manner of
songs for soprano, alto, tenor and bass voices.
Listen to music example 60:
a madrigal.
This same combination of vocal timbres continues to be a rich vein for contemporary composers in
various musical styles, including jazz.
Listen to music example 61:
a contemporary vocal ensemble.
Instrumental ensemble
In this category, the main distinction to be noted is between chamber music, written for
combinations of about three to eight players, and symphonic/ orchestral/band groups which can be
of gargantuan proportions.
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Chamber music
The evidence, of surviving traditional musics of various cultures and relics from early civilisations,
suggests that small instrumental ensembles have been in existence since ancient times, although
Sachs (1968) thinks that before 1400, players generally accompanied singing.
After that time they slowly began to make themselves independent, at first by taking over dancing
songs and adapting them to the particular technique of their instruments. Gradually, instruments
took possession of all kinds of vocal forms, not restricting themselves to dance music; motets and
madrigals were performed on instruments, and as late as the seventeenth century printed
collections of pieces bore the sub-title, ‘to be sung or played’.
(Sachs 1968, p. 297)
In Europe, the historic periods of the Renaissance (1400–1600) and the baroque (1600–1750)
witnessed a flowering of instrumental ensemble music which, together with the accompanying
refinement in the construction of instruments, yielded the heritage which is ours today.
During the late eighteenth century, composers such as Mozart, Haydn and Boccherini composed
pieces known as ‘divertimenti’ for various combinations of instruments which were ‘primarily
designed for the entertainment of the listeners and the players; it [i.e. the writing of divertimenti]
presupposes on the composer’s part a certain lightness of approach’ (Sadie 1980, vol. 5, p. 504).
These pieces probably functioned as entertainment or ‘dinner music’.
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Among the most famous of chamber music genres are the piano trio (violin, cello, piano) and the
string quartet (two violins, viola and cello). These combinations of instruments have occasioned
some of the most sublime music in the history of European culture. Since its inception in the
eighteenth century, composers as diverse as Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Schoenberg and Bartók
have made the string quartet the expressive vehicle for some of their highest art.
Listen to music example 62: a string quartet.
Orchestral music
This category includes music from a wide range of styles and types of ensemble.
Symphony orchestra
Certainly the most impressive of the large scale instrumental ensembles, the symphony orchestra
uses instruments from all of the ‘families’ described in this chapter (strings, woodwinds, brass and
percussion).
The strings are generally given the most important melodic parts, while the woodwinds
provide special effects and reinforce the harmony. The brass instruments sometimes
blend with the woodwinds in harmony. They can also be used strikingly in solo melodic
parts, in climaxing passages, and in music of a military nature. The percussion section
functions mainly as a source of rhythmic vitality and accent, but it may also be used to
create special moods and effects.
(Politoske 1979, p. 30)
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Due to the fact that the orchestra has evolved over the centuries from an enlarged ‘chamber’
ensemble into the one hundred or so instrumentalists required to perform music of the late
nineteenth century, it is difficult to make meaningful generalised statements about it. Modern
orchestras may be flexible organisations, to enable them to adjust to the requirements of the style
of music being played, or else they specialise in a particular style.
For an example of a symphony orchestra playing music of the
late nineteenth century, listen again to music example 33:
Mussorgsky’s Night on the Bare Mountain.
A group of pieces which display some of the richness of orchestral colour is Mussorgsky’s Pictures
at an Exhibition, as orchestrated by Ravel. You should try to listen to a recorded performance of
this work in order to appreciate the range of timbres and their expressive qualities available to the
composer.
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Figure 5.25
Locations of each instrumental ‘section’ in the modern symphony orchestra
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Brass and military band
This is another genre which can vary considerably in instrumentation and magnitude, from the
modest twenty- to thirty-member bands of amateurs playing brass and percussion instruments, to
much larger groups of ‘professionals’, often attached to one or other of the armed services. The
timbral output of the latter is often enriched by the inclusion of woodwind instruments. The social
use of such groups is to perform on ceremonial occasions, at public celebrations and so-called
‘light’ entertainments, often outdoors (e.g. football finals, street parades). Some music written for
these groups is technically challenging and is really symphonic in concept, being intended as
concert music, that is, for listening only, as distinct from music for marching or arrangements of
‘show’ tunes which are other genres performed by brass and military bands.
A military band
Listen to music
example 63: a
brass band.
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Now listen to music example 64: a military band, and note the inclusion
of woodwind instruments as well as brass and percussion instruments.
Jazz orchestra
‘Big bands’, as they were often called, were made up of ten or more musicians who usually played
instruments of the brass, woodwind and/or saxophone (reed), and ‘rhythm section’ (piano, guitar,
bass, drums) categories. Although much variation of instrumentation occurred, a typical
combination from the mid-1930s consisted of three to five saxophones (alto and tenor being
commonest), two to five trumpets, two or three trombones and a ‘rhythm section’ consisting of
drum kit (one player), piano, guitar and double bass (which replaced the tuba as the harmonic
foundation of these bands in the early 1930s). An essential member of many such groups was a
singer, and a number of famous popular vocalists’ careers were begun with these organisations
(e.g. Bing Crosby with the Paul Whiteman Band).
Originally functioning as bands which played for dancing, a number made the transition to concert
music during the 1940s. In so doing, they created a new musical idiom and largely lost their dance
audience following, although a percentage of this audience made the transition to music listeners
and remained ‘fans’.
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The best of these bands played written music ‘arrangements’; it was well-nigh impossible to get
such large ensembles to play together if all the musicians were improvising. Sections of the
compositions were left open for improvised ‘solos’. These solos were played by musicians whose
names have become jazz legends (although these improvisers were sometimes paid less than
their non-improvising colleagues). Two of the better-known bands of the ‘swing’ era (1930s–1940s)
are listed here with the names of their leaders first and some prominent soloists in brackets.
Edward ‘Duke’ Ellington (Cat Anderson, Cootie Williams, Rex Stewart, Clark Terry, Bubber Miley—
trumpet; ‘Tricky Sam’ Nanton, Juan Tizol—trombone; Ben Webster—tenor sax; Johnny Hodges—
alto sax; Jimmy Blanton, Oscar Pettiford—bassists). Ellington and his alter ego, Billy Strayhorn,
were outstanding jazz composers whose places in the history of this style of music is assured.
William ‘Count’ Basie (‘Hot Lips’ Page, Buck Clayton, Clark Terry, Harry ‘Sweets’ Edison, Thad
Jones—trumpet; Dickie Wells, Curtis Fuller—trombone; Lester Young, Herschel Evans, Wardell
Gray, Lucky Thompson, Don Byas, Illinois Jacquet, Paul Gonsalves, Eddie ‘Lockjaw’ Davis, Frank
Foster—saxophone; Walter Page—bass; Jo Jones, Shadow Wilson, Louis Bellson, Butch Miles—
drums).
Both the Ellington and Basie bands have outlasted their founders. After the Second World War,
such large organisations became progressively less economical, but some survived, including the
two mentioned, the Lionel Hampton band and one led, until his recent death, by Woody Herman.
Another influential big band during the 1960s was that led by Stan Kenton.
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Listen to music example 65:
a jazz ‘big band’.
Billy Eckstine’s Band, 1946
References
Haas, K. 1987, Inside Music: How to Understand, Listen to and Enjoy Good Music, Sun,
Melbourne.
Politoske, D. T. 1979, Music, 2nd edn, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Rowley, G. (ed.) 1977, The Book of Music, New Burlington Books, London.
Sachs, C. 1968, The History of Musical Instruments, J. M. Dent, London.
Sadie, S. 1980, The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Macmillan, London.
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