Transcript Constituent_Orderx

Constituent Order & ‘Emphasis’
in the Greek New Testament
Stephen H. Levinsohn
SIL International
Constituent Order & ‘Emphasis’
If the order is judged to be unusual,
is it always for ‘emphasis’?
 In fact, commentators use the term
‘emphasis’ to refer to two very
different phenomena.

(Levinsohn, The Relevance of Greek Discourse
Studies to Exegesis, §3.1)
Constituent Order: Rom 5:8
συνίστησιν δὲ τὴν ἑαυτοῦ ἀγάπην
εἰς ἡμᾶς ὁ θεός,
ὅτι ἔτι ἁμαρτωλῶν ὄντων ἡμῶν
Χριστὸς ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν ἀπέθανεν.
Constituent Order: Rom 5:8
συνίστησιν δὲ τὴν ἑαυτοῦ ἀγάπην
εἰς ἡμᾶς ὁ θεός,
ὅτι ἔτι ἁμαρτωλῶν ὄντων ἡμῶν
Χριστὸς ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν ἀπέθανεν.
Syntactic Typology: 1960’s
Languages classified on statistical
grounds according to the relative
order of three constituents:
subject (S), verb (V) & object (O):

SOV (verb-final: Japanese)

SVO (verb-medial: English)

VSO (verb-initial: Welsh).
Syntactic Typology: 1960’s

K. J. Dover: “in the language of
the New Testament, rules of order
are much more easily defined in
syntactical terms than they are in
Classical Greek”.
(Greek Word Order [CUP, 1960], 68)
Syntactic Typology: 1960’s

Blass, Debrunner & Funk: in
the narrative of the NT, the verb
tends to stand “immediately
after the conjunction”.
(A Greek Grammar of the New Testament,
§472(1))
Syntactic Typology: Nowadays
Languages classified according to the
relative order of two pairs of constituents: subject—verb & object—verb.
 Japanese: SV/OV
 English: SV/VO
 Welsh: VS/VO.
(Dryer, On the six-way word order typology)
Syntactic Typology: Nowadays
Functional factors play a key part
in the classification of languages.
 When determining default order, is
the subject the propositional topic?
 In oral English, the subject carries
the primary accent only when NOT
the topic (e.g. ‘an angel of the Lórd

appeared to them’—Lk 2:9).
(Lambrecht, Information Structure, 234-35)
Functional Linguists: Simon Dik
… explains variations in constituent
order in Hungarian (narrative
sentences often begin with verb),
with the template
P1 P2 V X (see next slide).
(Dik, Functional Grammar, 363)
Simon Dik’s template
P1 P2 V X
P1: “Position 1” can be occupied by
one or more TOPIC constituents.
P2: “Position 2” can be occupied by
a FOCUS constituent.
X: Post-verbal constituents.
Simon Dik’s P1 P2 V X template
… can usefully be applied to both
NT Greek and Biblical Hebrew.
 If it is common in chronologically
ordered material (e.g. narratives)
for topical subjects expressed as
noun (phrase)s to follow the verb,
then classify the language as VS.

The Principle of Natural
Information Flow

When the principle is adhered to,
non-verbal constituents that convey
more established information are
placed before those that convey less
established information:
more established – less established
The Principle of Natural
Information Flow
Violating the principle gives
‘emphatic’ prominence to the
non-established information that
has been placed before the
established information.
 The principle explains many variations in order within sentences,
clauses and noun phrases.

Constituent Order Variations:
Some Factors
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Is the subject the propositional topic
or not?
Dik’s P1 P2 V X template.
Principle of Natural Information Flow.
Postposing of topical subjects.
[if time] Default and marked orders when
an auxiliary verb (e.g. εἰμί, δεῖ) is followed
by a participial or infinitival clause.]
Topic, Focus and
Dik’s template for VS languages
Dik distinguishes between two
types of constituent that can be
placed before the verb:
 TOPIC constituents (in P1)
 FOCUS constituents (in P2).
TOPIC & FOCUS: 1 Th 5:9
ὅτι οὐκ ἔθετο / ἡμᾶς / ὁ θεὸς / εἰς ὀργὴν
ἀλλὰ εἰς περιποίησιν σωτηρίας
διὰ τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ
TOPIC & FOCUS: 1 Th 5:9

The topic of a clause or sentence
is usually its subject. A comment is
made about it.*
(*English grammars: ‘subject – predicate’.)
ὅτι οὐκ ἔθετο / ἡμᾶς / ὁ θεὸς / εἰς ὀργὴν
ἀλλὰ εἰς περιποίησιν σωτηρίας
διὰ τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ
TOPIC & FOCUS: 1 Th 5:9

The focus is “the information in
the sentence that is assumed by
the speaker not to be shared by
him [or her] and the hearer”
(Jackendoff).
ὅτι οὐκ ἔθετο / ἡμᾶς / ὁ θεὸς / εἰς ὀργὴν
ἀλλὰ εἰς περιποίησιν σωτηρίας
διὰ τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ
1 Th 1:5: TOPIC in P1
ὅτι τὸ εὐαγγέλιον ἡμῶν οὐκ ἐγενήθη
εἰς ὑμᾶς ἐν λόγῳ μόνον
ἀλλὰ καὶ ἐν δυνάμει καὶ ἐν πνεύματι
ἁγίῳ καὶ [ἐν] πληροφορίᾳ πολλῇ,
(Constituents in P1 are underlined.)
TOPIC & FOCUS: 1 Th 3:5d
5c
μή πως ἐπείρασεν ὑμᾶς ὁ πειράζων
5d καὶ εἰς κενὸν γένηται ὁ κόπος ἡμῶν.
What is 5d about (what is its topic)?
ὁ κόπος ἡμῶν (‘Our efforts’—NIV).
TOPIC & FOCUS: 1 Th 3:5d
5c
μή πως ἐπείρασεν ὑμᾶς ὁ πειράζων
5d καὶ εἰς κενὸν γένηται ὁ κόπος ἡμῶν.
What is the comment about ὁ κόπος ἡμῶν
(‘our efforts’)?
εἰς κενὸν γένηται
(‘Might have been useless’—NIV)
TOPIC & FOCUS: 1 Th 3:5d
5c
μή πως ἐπείρασεν ὑμᾶς ὁ πειράζων
5d καὶ εἰς κενὸν γένηται ὁ κόπος ἡμῶν.
What is the focus of 5d?
All of the comment: εἰς κενὸν
γένηται.
TOPIC & FOCUS: 1 Th 3:5d
5c
μή πως ἐπείρασεν ὑμᾶς ὁ πειράζων
5d καὶ εἰς κενὸν γένηται ὁ κόπος ἡμῶν.
Part of the comment (εἰς κενὸν)
precedes the verb, so is in P2.
TOPIC & FOCUS: 1 Th 5:7a
P1
P2
οἱ γὰρ καθεύδοντες νυκτὸς καθεύδουσιν
Dik’s P1 P2 V X template
 WHY
does Greek sometimes
place constituents in P1 or
P2, rather than after the
verb?
Dik’s template: why in P1?
 Most
constituents in P1 signal
switches of attention.*
ἄρα οὖν μὴ καθεύδωμεν ὡς οἱ λοιποὶ ἀλλὰ
γρηγορῶμεν καὶ νήφωμεν.
(‘we’)
7οἱ γὰρ καθεύδοντες νυκτὸς καθεύδουσιν
καὶ οἱ μεθυσκόμενοι νυκτὸς μεθύουσιν·
8ἡμεῖς δὲ ἡμέρας ὄντες νήφωμεν… (1 Th 5:6-8)
6
(*Renewal of attention: see DFNTG §2.3.)
Dik’s template: why in P1?:
Acts 1:5

Most constituents in P1 signal
switches of attention.
ὅτι Ἰωάννης μὲν ἐβάπτισεν ὕδατι,
ὑμεῖς δὲ ἐν πνεύματι βαπτισθήσεσθε ἁγίῳ
οὐ μετὰ πολλὰς ταύτας ἡμέρας.

A switch of attention from John to
‘you’. (Contrast ‘but in a few days you
will be baptised with the Holy Spirit’—NIV.)
Dik’s template: why in P1?:
Col 1:20-22
20
καὶ δι’ αὐτοῦ ἀποκαταλλάξαι τὰ πάντα εἰς αὐτόν…
21
Καὶ ὑμᾶς ποτε ὄντας ἀπηλλοτριωμένους καὶ
ἐχθροὺς τῇ διανοίᾳ ἐν τοῖς ἔργοις τοῖς πονηροῖς,
22 νυνὶ δὲ ἀποκατήλλαξεν…
 Attention switches from ‘all things’ to
‘you’ (who have also been reconciled). (21 begins a new paragraph in
NIV with ‘Once’.)
Dik’s template: why NOT in P1?

When Paul does NOT want attention to switch to the new subject,
then the subject follows the verb.
8ἡμεῖς
δὲ ἡμέρας ὄντες νήφωμεν ἐνδυσάμενοι
θώρακα πίστεως καὶ ἀγάπης καὶ
περικεφαλαίαν ἐλπίδα σωτηρίας·
9ὅτι οὐκ ἔθετο ἡμᾶς ὁ θεὸς εἰς ὀργὴν
ἀλλὰ εἰς περιποίησιν σωτηρίας…
(1 Th 5:8-9)
Dik’s template: why in P2?
Constituents in P2 are there for
prominence.
 Most commonly, the prominence is
contrastive or truly emphatic.
 “Emphasis proper involves
expressing strong feelings about
an item or indicating that what
follows is unexpected.”

In P2 for contrastive prominence
7οἱ
γὰρ καθεύδοντες νυκτὸς καθεύδουσιν
καὶ οἱ μεθυσκόμενοι νυκτὸς μεθύουσιν·
8ἡμεῖς δὲ ἡμέρας ὄντες / νήφωμεν…
(1 Th 5:7-8)
 νυκτὸς
and ἡμέρας are in contrast.
In P2 for emphatic prominence
καὶ εἰς κενὸν γένηται ὁ κόπος ἡμῶν
(1 Th 3:5d)

By placing εἰς κενὸν in P2, Paul
emphasises his concern that ‘our
efforts might have been useless’
(NIV).
In P2 to highlight what follows
Τοῦτο γὰρ ὑμῖν λέγομεν ἐν λόγῳ κυρίου,
[ὅτι ἡμεῖς οἱ ζῶντεςοἱ περιλειπόμενοι
εἰς τὴν παρουσίαν τοῦ κυρίου
οὐ μὴ φθάσωμεν τοὺς κοιμηθέντας·]
(1 Th 4:15)

Placing cataphoric τοῦτο in P2 highlights the material to which it refers
(the clauses introduced with ὅτι).
In P2 to highlight what follows


NIV often fails to convey the highlighting associated with cataphoric τοῦτο.
‘According to the Lord's own word, we
tell you that we who are still alive, who
are left till the coming of the Lord, will
certainly not precede those who have
fallen asleep’.
‘Let me explain (this is the word of the
Lord I’m speaking to you!). We who
are alive…’ (Wright)
P2 and Split Constituents

When a coordinative constituent
is focally prominent, it is common
for only the first part to be in P2.
καὶ ὑμεῖς μιμηταὶ ἡμῶν ἐγενήθητε
καὶ τοῦ κυρίου,
(1 Th 1:6a)
P2 and Split Constituents

Complex focal constituents can also
be split because the two parts are
unequally relevant.
ὑμεῖς γὰρ μιμηταὶ ἐγενήθητε, ἀδελφοί,
τῶν ἐκκλησιῶν τοῦ θεοῦ τῶν οὐσῶν ἐν
τῇ Ἰουδαίᾳ ἐν Χριστῷ Ἰησοῦ (1 Th 2:14)

The bolded constituent is probably
split “because only the second part
relates to what follows”.
Dik’s P1 P2 V X template:
Summary
WHY does Greek sometimes place
constituents in P1 or P2, rather than
after the verb?
 Most
constituents in P1 signal
switches of attention.
 Constituents in P2 are there
for prominence (most often,
contrastive or emphatic).
Principle of Natural Information Flow
Application to clauses and sentences.
When the principle is adhered to,
non-verbal constituents that convey more established information
are placed before those that convey less established information:
more established – less established

Principle of Natural Information Flow

more established – less established
Pronominal constituents usually
precede nominal ones.
ὅτι οὐκ ἔθετο / ἡμᾶς / ὁ θεὸς / εἰς ὀργὴν
(1 Th 5:9a)

Topical subjects usually precede nonverbal constituents of the comment
(with objects [arguments] typically before
peripheral constituents).
Principle of Natural Information Flow



Adhering to the Principle may result
in unexpected orders of constituents:
postposed subjects,
postposed verbs,
postposed objects.
“Dominant focal element” (DFE)
Adhering to the Principle of Natural
Information Flow
τὸ μὴ ὑπερβαίνειν καὶ πλεονεκτεῖν
ἐν τῷ πράγματι / τὸν ἀδελφὸν αὐτοῦ
(1 Th 4:6a)

The direct object (τὸν ἀδελφὸν αὐτοῦ –
less established information)
has been postposed after the
prepositional phrase (ἐν τῷ πράγματι –
more established information).
Adhering to the Principle of Natural
Information Flow
ἐὰν γὰρ εἰσέλθῃ εἰς συναγωγὴν ὑμῶν
ἀνὴρ χρυσοδακτύλιος ἐν ἐσθῆτι λαμπρᾷ
(Ja 2:2)

The subject (ἀνὴρ χρυσοδακτύλιος ἐν
ἐσθῆτι λαμπρᾷ) is not the topic of the
conditional clause, but is focal.
Principle of Natural Information Flow:
Dominant Focal Element
καὶ ὑμεῖς μιμηταὶ ἡμῶν ἐγενήθητε
καὶ τοῦ κυρίου,
δεξάμενοι / τὸν λόγον / ἐν θλίψει πολλῇ /
μετὰ χαρᾶς πνεύματος ἁγίου [DFE]
(1 Th 1:6)
Violating the Principle
of Natural Information Flow
… gives prominence to the nonestablished information that has
been placed before the
established information.
 This is usually done by placing the
constituent before the verb, in P2.

Violating the Principle
of Natural Information Flow
Explicit violation of the Principle:
non-established – established* – verb.

1 Th 2:8c: P2
διότι
established
ἀγαπητοὶ ἡμῖν
verb
ἐγενήθητε.
1 Th 2:10: P2
ὡς ὁσίως καὶ δικαίως καὶ ἀμέμπτως
established
verb
ὑμῖν τοῖς πιστεύουσιν ἐγενήθημεν,
(*Randy Buth’s “quiet spot”.)
Violating the Principle
of Natural Information Flow

Explicit violation of the Principle:
non-established - established – verb.
 Explicit
violations of the Principle
show that the author feels
particularly strongly about
what he is emphasising.
Violating the Principle
of Natural Information Flow

… quite common in identificational
clauses such as information interrogatives, in which all but the question
word is the presupposition, and the
question word itself is the focus.
Ὦ ἀνόητοι Γαλάται, τίς ὑμᾶς ἐβάσκανεν;
(Gal 3:1; rhetorical)
καὶ τίς σοι ἔδωκεν τὴν ἐξουσίαν ταύτην;
(Mt 21:23; implying, ‘No-one!’)
Violating the Principle
of Natural Information Flow

… in clauses that begin with the copula
when a topical subject is placed after
the complement.
ἦσαν δὲ πλείους τεσσεράκοντα οἱ ταύτην
τὴν συνωμοσίαν ποιησάμενοι. (Ac 23:13)

The subject relates back to 12
(ποιήσαντες συστροφὴν οἱ Ἰουδαῖοι), so is
established information, whereas
πλείους τεσσεράκοντα is not.
Violating the Principle of Natural
Information Flow within a phrase

… results in the preposed part
being given prominence.
ἐξ ἀνθρώπων δόξαν
6
οὔτε ζητοῦντες
7
δυνάμενοι ἐν βάρει εἶναι
ὡς Χριστοῦ ἀπόστολοι
(1 Th 2:6, 7)
Principle of Natural Information
Flow: First Attributive Position
An adjective in first attributive position (Art Adj N) “receives greater
emphasis than the substantive”
(Wallace 1995).
 Exceptions relate to the Principle of
Natural Information Flow (Levinsohn,

A Fresh Look at Adjective – Noun
Ordering in Articular Noun Phrases).
Principle of Natural Information
Flow: First Attributive Position
ἡ δεξιά σου χεὶρ

(Mt 5:30)
The order of adjective and noun
conforms to the Principle of Natural
Information Flow because ὁ δεξιός σου
featured in 29 (ὁ ὀφθαλμός σου ὁ δεξιὸς),
whereas χείρ did not. The order is:
more established - less established,
so δεξιά σου does NOT receive greater
emphasis than χείρ.
Principle of Natural Information
Flow: First Attributive Position
τὸ σαπρὸν δένδρον


(Mt 7:17)
The order of adjective and noun violates
the Principle of Natural Information Flow
because δένδρον featured earlier in 17
(πᾶν δένδρον ἀγαθὸν), unlike σαπρὸν:
less established - more established
Such a violation gives σαπρὸν contrastive
prominence; the contrast with ἀγαθὸν is
emphasised.
Principle of Natural Information Flow:
Summary


When the principle is adhered to, the
order is:
more established – less established
When the principle is violated
(less established – more established)
prominence is given to the less
established information.
Ambiguous orders

Especially problematic with sentences
of only two words or phrases.
16
Πάντοτε χαίρετε,
17ἀδιαλείπτως προσεύχεσθε,
18ἐν παντὶ εὐχαριστεῖτε·
(1 Th 5:16-18)

Is the first word/phrase in P2
OR has the verb been postposed?
Ambiguous orders: 1 Th 5:16
Πάντοτε χαίρετε,
Which word is prominent:

‘Be joyful always’ (Πάντοτε χαίρετε)

‘Always be joyful’ (Πάντοτε χαίρετε)?
If anarthrous, I usually consider the
first constituent to be in P2.
Ambiguous orders: 1 Th 2:15
a
τῶν καὶ τὸν κύριον ἀποκτεινάντων Ἰησοῦν καὶ
τοὺς προφήτας
b
καὶ ἡμᾶς ἐκδιωξάντων
καὶ θεῷ μὴ ἀρεσκόντων
καὶ πᾶσιν ἀνθρώποις ἐναντίων,
c
d

In b-d, which word or phrase is
prominent: the verb or the
constituent that precedes it?
Postposed topical subjects
ἦσαν δὲ πλείους τεσσεράκοντα οἱ ταύτην τὴν
συνωμοσίαν ποιησάμενοι
(Acts 23:13)
 When presenting an event, postposing the subject typically selects
from the cast of active participants
the one who is the centre of attention for the next part of the story
(‘Concentrate on this character!’).
Postposed topical subjects

‘Concentrate on this character!’
ἀφῆκεν οὖν τὴν ὑδρίαν αὐτῆς ἡ γυνὴ
(Jn 4:28; the woman, rather than Jesus
or his disciples)
Μετὰ δέ τινας ἡμέρας
εἶπεν πρὸς Βαρναβᾶν Παῦλος
(Ac 15:36; Paul, rather than Barnabas)
Postposed topical subjects
When the subject of an active
verb is postposed, the event
concerned is usually in chronological sequence with the last
one described.
 Contrast subjects in P1: signalling
a switch of attention, not
chronological sequence.

Postposed topical subjects



(Lk 1:49:
Magnificat, not narrative).
ὅτι ἐποίησέν μοι μεγάλα ὁ δυνατός
In 48, Mary takes up Elizabeth’s words
of 42: ἰδοὺ γὰρ ἀπὸ τοῦ νῦν μακαριοῦσίν με
πᾶσαι αἱ γενεαί.
As she states why this will be so (ὅτι),
she switches the hearers’ attention from
herself to the Almighty (the centre of
attention for the rest of the song)!
Postposed topical subjects

Occasionally, the motivation for
postposing a topical subject seems
to mark the end of a unit that
concerns that topic.
εἰ δοθήσεται τῇ γενεᾷ ταύτῃ σημεῖον (Mk
8:12) brings discussion of the sign
that the Pharisees had requested
(11) to a close.
Application to Rom 5:8
a
συνίστησιν δὲ τὴν ἑαυτοῦ ἀγάπην
εἰς ἡμᾶς ὁ θεός,
b ὅτι ἔτι ἁμαρτωλῶν ὄντων ἡμῶν
c Χριστὸς ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν ἀπέθανεν.
8a: what is unusual about the order?
 The topical subject, ὁ θεός, has been
postposed—contrastive

prominence.
Application to Rom 5:8
a
συνίστησιν δὲ τὴν ἑαυτοῦ ἀγάπην
εἰς ἡμᾶς ὁ θεός,
b ὅτι ἔτι ἁμαρτωλῶν ὄντων ἡμῶν
c Χριστὸς ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν ἀπέθανεν.
 8b: why does ἔτι ἁμαρτωλῶν come before
the verb?

P2; contrasts with ‘a righteous man’
and ‘a good man’ in 7; ἔτι adds to the
surprising nature of this statement:
emphasis.
Application to Rom 5:8
a
συνίστησιν δὲ τὴν ἑαυτοῦ ἀγάπην
εἰς ἡμᾶς ὁ θεός,
b ὅτι ἔτι ἁμαρτωλῶν ὄντων ἡμῶν
c Χριστὸς ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν ἀπέθανεν.
 8b + c: double contrast with 6-7:
τιs versus Christ;
rightous & good men versus sinners.
 ‘Christ died for us while we were
still sinners’ (Barclay).
Application to Rom 5:8
a
συνίστησιν δὲ τὴν ἑαυτοῦ ἀγάπην
εἰς ἡμᾶς ὁ θεός,
b ὅτι ἔτι ἁμαρτωλῶν ὄντων ἡμῶν
c Χριστὸς ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν ἀπέθανεν.
 How do we explain the order of
8b-c?
 ἔτι ἁμαρτωλῶν ὄντων ἡμῶν is in P2
in relation to 8c (8b-c is
presupposed information from 6).
Application to Rom 5:8
a
συνίστησιν δὲ τὴν ἑαυτοῦ ἀγάπην
εἰς ἡμᾶς ὁ θεός,
b-c

ὅτι [ἔτι ἁμαρτωλῶν ὄντων ἡμῶν]
Χριστὸς* ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν ἀπέθανεν.
‘It was [while we were still
sinners] that Christ* died for us’.
(*Refocus on Christ [anarthrous]; all the
information in 8c was established in v 6.)
Constituent Order Variations:
Some Factors: Review
1.
Whether the subject is the
propositional topic or is focal.
2.
Dik’s P1 P2 V X template.
3.
Orders that adhere to versus
violate the Principle of Natural
Information Flow.
4.
Postposing of topical subjects.
Default order in constructions with
an auxiliary verb
 Default
position of topical
subjects: between the auxiliary
and the participle
(Levinsohn, Constituent Order in and
Usages of εἰμί - Participle Combinations
in the Synoptics and Acts, §2).
Καὶ ἦν ὁ λαὸς προσδοκῶν τὸν Ζαχαρίαν
(Lk 1:21)
Default order in constructions with
an auxiliary verb

Typologically, Aux – S - V as default is
not surprising for a VS language.
 Μέλλω – S – infinitive.
Μέλλει ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου παραδίδοσθαι
εἰς χεῖρας ἀνθρώπων (Mt 17:22)
Default order in constructions with
an auxiliary verb
 ἄρχω
– S – infinitive
Ἀπὸ τότε ἤρξατο ὁ Ἰησοῦς κηρύσσειν
καὶ λέγειν (Mt 4:17)
 τελέω
– S - participle
ὅτε ἐτέλεσεν ὁ Ἰησοῦς διατάσσων
τοῖς δώδεκα μαθηταῖς αὐτοῦ (Mt 11:1)
Default order in constructions with
an auxiliary verb
 Δεῖ
- notional S - infinitive
Δεῖ ὑμᾶς γεννηθῆναι ἄνωθεν
(Jn 3:7)
ὅτι δεῖ αὐτὸν εἰς Ἱεροσόλυμα ἀπελθεῖν…
(Mt 16:21; εἰς Ἱεροσόλυμα in P2
relative to ἀπελθεῖν)
References



Dik, Simon C., The Theory of Functional
Grammar, Part I: The Structure of the
Clause (Foris, 1989).
Dryer, Matthew S., On the six-way word
order typology, Studies in Language
21.2 (1997) 69-103.
Lambrecht, Knud, Information Structure
and Sentence Form: Topic, Focus, and
the Mental Representations of Discourse
Referents (CUP, 1994).
References (continued)


Levinsohn, Stephen H., The Relevance of
Greek Discourse Studies to Exegesis,
Journal of Translation 2.2 (2006).
———, A Fresh Look at Adjective – Noun
Ordering in Articular Noun Phrases,
paper presented at July 2011 meeting of
SBL, London; online at
www.sil.org/~levinsohns, Unpublished
Conference Papers page.
References (continued)

———, Constituent Order in and
Usages of εἰμί – Participle Combinations in the Synoptics and Acts, paper
presented at the Congress of the
International Syriac Language Project,
Munich, Germany, August 2013. (To
appear in Perspectives on Linguistics
and Ancient Languages 5.)