Transcript Syntax 2 powerpoint presentation

Dorota Klimek-Jankowska
• 1)
• 2)
• 3)
John article an wrote.
Planted a flower John.
Julie tired is her job of.
At some point in the process of the evolution our human
brain developed a fascinating potential to produce and
comprehend language thanks to which we know that
sentences (1)-(3) are not grammatically correct.
MENTAL GRAMMAR (LINGUISTIC
COMPETENCE, UG- UNIVERSAL
GRAMMAR
A set of grammatical rules which are innate.
This means that speakers of all natural
languages are born with some mental
computational device (grammar) responsible
for language production and comprehension.
MENTAL GRAMMAR consists of many abstract
subsystems:
- LEXICON,
- PHONETIC AND PHONOLOGICAL RULES
- MORPHOLOGICAL RULES
- SYNTACTIC RULES
Today we focus on the SYNTACTIC
COMPONENT of our mental grammar.
The SYNTACTIC MODULE of our
mental grammar is responsible for the
generation of possible sentences in a
language. It can be compared to a
computer program which consists of a
set of basic units/symbols and a set of
rules which determine possible
arrangements of the basic units.
Let’s focus on an example of a formal grammar
(similar to a very simple computer program).
Our formal grammar consists of:
A set of basic units/symbols A, B, C, D, S
Rules that generate a possible structure out of these
units:
S  A C this means that whenever S occurs it can be
replaced by AC
D  B A this means that whenever D occurs it can be
replaced by B A
C  B D this means that whenever C occurs it can be
replaced by B D
One symbol is chosen as the initial symbol: let it be S
SAC
DBA
CBD
Which of the following arrangements of symbols
are possible according to these rules?
PHRASE STRUCTURE GRAMMAR
A formal grammar that generates the
grammatical sentences of a language and
captures native speaker’s knowledge of
how words are grouped into phrases and
how phrases are grouped into sentences
PHRASE STRUCTURE GRAMMAR
consists of:
BASIC UNITS
SYNTACTIC RULES
• What are those basic units?
• What are those syntactic rules?
BASIC UNITS OF PHRASE STRUCTURE
GRAMMAR:
SYNTACTIC RULES: WHAT ARE THE
RULES WHICH ALLOW US TO
COMPUTE A GRAMMATICAL
SENTENCE out of the basic lexical and
functional categories?
Before I answer this question, let’s revise
the foundational facts about the structure of
phrases.
Words in a sentence are grouped
together into phrases.
Phrases are built around categories (nouns, verbs...).
Nouns allow us to form NOUN PHRASES (NP)
Adjectives allow us to form ADJECTIVE PHRASES
(AP)
Verbs allow us to form VERB PHRASES (VP)
Prepositions allow us to form PREPOSITIONAL
PHRASES (PP)
Those words around which phrases are built arecalled
HEADS. HEADS are the only obligatory elements of each
phrase.
In English, phrases can optionally contain
some material to the left e.g. often reads, the
birds, almost inside. These elements to the left
of the heads are called SPECIFIERS.
English phrases can also optionally contain
some material to their right e.g. read books,
proud of John, students of mathematics. These
elements to the right of a head function as
COMPLEMENTS.
We agreed that the structure of a Verb Phrase
(VP) often read books looks as follows:
We need an intermediate level V’ because
the head + complement grouping is independent of the sepcifier
In other words, read books is independent of often.
Does John read books?
In fact, he often does. (does replaces read books)
The tree in Table 1 B is a schematic representation of the structure of
a verb phrase often read books.
What are the syntactic RULES which allow us to compute this
PHRASE STRUCTURE?
VP  (Q) V’
V’  V (NP)
The only obligatory element of a verb phrase is a head - a verb.
Brackets indicate that the qualifier in the specifier position and
the noun phrase in the complement position are optional:
John (often) reads, John read (books), John reads
These rules which determine the
structure of phrases are called PHRASE
STRUCTURE RULES.
PHRASE STRUCTURE RULES FOR A
VERB PHRASE (VP):
VP  (Q) V’
V’  V (NP)
It is important to note that these formal
representations of phrase structures and rules
are not just notations used by linguists but they
are formal represenations of biological linguistic
phenomena which are psychologically real
(really happen in our brain/mind and allow us to
learn and process language).
Linguistics is an empirical science just like
physics – physicists observe real phenomena
like for instance riding a bike or flying or apples
falling down from the apple trees (Newton) and
they use their intuitions and reasoning to
understand the hidden rules which underly the
observed
phenomena
and
once
they
understand the rules, they create formal
representations which are clear, simple and
unambiguous.
Apart from Verb Phrases (VPs) we also have:
Noun Phrases (NPs):
these books about dogs
Prepositional Phrases (PPs):
right under the table
Adjective Phrases (APs):
very afraid of spiders
What are the structures of these phrases?
The structure of the Noun Phrase looks as
follows:
We need an intermediate level N’ because the head +
complement
(books about dogs) forms a unit which is
independent of the sepcifier (these).
Which books about dogs have you read?
I’ve read these ones.
(ones replaces books about dogs)
What are the syntactic PHRASE STRUCTURE
RULES which allow us to compute this PHRASE
STRUCTURE?
NP  (Det) N’
N’  N (PP)
The only obligatory element of a noun phrase is a head
that is a noun. Brackets indicate that the determiner in
the specifier position and the prepositional phrase in the
complement position are optional: books about dogs,
these books, books
When there is no specifier or complement in a phrase it
is marked as Ø .
The structure of the Prepositional Phrase looks as
follows: Prepositional Phrases (PPs):
right under the table
We need an intermediate level P’ because the head + complement
(under the table) forms a unit which is independent of the specifier (right).
Is my book under the table?
Yes, it is right there. (there replaces under the table)
What are the syntactic PHRASE STRUCTURE
RULES which allow us to compute this PHRASE
STRUCTURE?
PP  (Int) P’
P’  P (NP)
The only obligatory element of a prepositional
phrase is a head that is a preposition. Brackets
indicate that the intensifier in the specifier position
and the noun phrase in the complement position
are optional: right under, under the table
The structure of the Adjectival Phrase looks as
follows:
Adjective Phrases (Aps): very afraid of spiders
What are the syntactic PHRASE STRUCTURE RULES which allow us
to compute this PHRASE STRUCTURE?
AP  (Int) A’
A’  A (PP)
The only obligatory element of an adjectival phrase is
a head that is an adjective. Brackets indicate that the
intensifier in the specifier position and the
prepositional phrase in the complement position are
optional: very afraid, afraid of dogs
We know enough about Phrase Structure to
make some deeper generalisations.
We have learned that every phrasal category
contains at least one element. Every VP must
contain at least a verb, Every NP must contain
at least a noun, Every PP must contain at least
a preposition.
These obligatory elements are called HEADS of
the phrases.
We can use a variable X (just like in
mathematics) which will stand for all HEADS
(adjectival, prepositional, verbal, noun
HEADS). Using this variable, we can name
the whole phrase as XP. We can state a
generalisation:
Every XP (phrase) must contain an X (a
head)
What else can a phrase contain?
Each phrase contains an intermediate level X’
which separates hierarchically a Specifier
(Spec) and a HEAD + Complement (Compl)
grouping. This basically means that all
phrases pattern in exactly the same way in our
brain.
This also means we can use a universal phrase structure
for all phrases:
The phrasal rules which are innately encoded in the brains of human
beings (we are born with them) can be schematically represented as
follows:
XP  (Spec) X’
X’  X (Compl)
The theory according to which we can represent all
phrases using a uniform structure and uniform
phrase structure rules is called the X’-theory (x-bar
theory)
Conclusion:
The phrase structure rules XP  (Spec) X’ and X’  X
(Compl) are part of a speaker’s linguistic competence,
the mental knowledge of grammar. They are part of
UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR (the innate Language
Acquisition Device) shared by all human beings.
Implications:
1) These simple rules allows us to determine which sentences
of English are grammatical and which are not.
2) These simple rules distinguish us from monkeys and other
living creatures.
3) These simple rules explain why all children all over the
world, independently of their IQ levels, learn a language
quickly in spite of the limited linguistic input they are
exposed to. Children use those inborn syntactic rules to
make correct generalisations about language.
• Recursive nature of grammar (sentences can be in
principle never-ending):
My mum said that Mary thinks that Bill is aware of
the fact that what I found in his room under the
carpet in a tiny box under a symbol of a rose
…..was a Christmas present for Sue which she
asked for in her letter to a Santa Claus….
• It is because rules can be embedded recursively
within one another for example:
Imagine we have the following rules
• A BC
• C  DA
The structure of simple sentences
We’ve learned enough about the structure of phrases.
How do phrases group together to form grammatical
sentences?
Which phrases do the following simple sentences
consist of?
[The man]NP [saw [the thief]NP]VP.
He saw the thief.
Yes, he did.
The man saw him.
• [John]NP [is [proud [of [his sister]NP ]PP]AP]VP.
More about verbs:
Verbs can be clasified according to how many
complements they occur with:
intransitive verbs lack complements: sleep, jump, wink,
smile
John slept/ jumped/ winked/ smiled.
transitive verbs occur with one complement: read a book,
eat a sandwich, ride a bike, drive a car
John read a book/ ate a sandwich/ rode a bike/ drove a car.
diatransitive verbs occur with two complements:
give money to John, thraw a ball to Mary
John gave money to John.
John threw a ball to Mary.