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JAPANESE GRAMMAR MADE EASY
HOW INTUITIVE VISUAL IMAGES CAN ASSIST IN THE
TEACHING OF JAPANESE GRAMMAR
International Conference of Japanese Language Education
Sydney, Australia
July 10, 2014
Harumi Minagawa
The University of Auckland
email:
[email protected]
Let’s be a linguist for a moment.
Teachers need to have a fresh eye for what
they are teaching.
2
Break up the following English sentence
into meaningful units.
‘(I) did not want to go.’
did (referring to the past)
not (not happening)
want (desire)
to go (basic action)
3
Let’s work out how the meaning units are
organized in this American Indian language!
“(I) OPOTAPUNAPATTA!”
Hmmm… Is this all one big word? No word boundaries
like English!
My informant says it is sort of one chunk of word,
but it carries several meaning components…
My informant broke up this long word for me…
4
This
is “Japanese”!!!
An American
Indian language
‘go-want-not-did’
IO K
P O
I
T A K
P U
N A K
P
A T T A
did (referring to the past)
not (not happening)
want to (desire)
go (action)
O
I
P
K
5
Typological characteristics of the
Japanese language
1. An agglutinative language. 膠着語(こうちゃくご)
(Many suffixes are glued together after the verbs/adjectives in
Japanese)
(日本語では動詞や形容詞などに形態素がたくさんつながる)
6
What other characteristics of the Japanese language are
reflected in the following sentence? (下の文は他に日本語
のどんな特徴を語っていますか。)
手紙は 私が 書きます。
2. Free word order language with postpositions
As long as the verb is last in the clause and the head noun
last in the noun phrase/clause,
other elements can move around
without changing the basic meaning.
(語順が比較的自由、後置詞で統語関係を表す)
3. Topic-comment language.
An element of a sentence is often topicalised, obscuring
the case particles such as ga and o.
(主題が助詞の「は」によって表される。学生は主題化によって
が「が」や「を」隠れてしまうことになかなか気づかない。)
Cf. トムはカメラだ。
7
What other characteristics of the Japanese language
are reflected in the following sentence? (下の文は他
に日本語のどんな特徴を語っていますか。)
もう
食べた?
4. Context dependent language.
(Regularly elements of a sentence are left out.)
(相手が分かるだろうと思うことには、省略をよく使う)
8 8
Surface sentences and pragmatic motivations
in Japanese(談話上の配慮が基本的な文法の形を左右
する)
Elements of a sentence do not necessarily appear in a fixed place (語順は一
定していない)
Sometimes the topic marker hides the case particle which represents the
semantic relations of the element of a sentence to the predicate
(主題化の「は」が述語との意味関係を表す格助詞を隠してしまう)
The element itself may often be elided all together (省略が多い)
Right from the beginning stage, students learning Japanese are faced with
surface structures that heavily reflect pragmatic motivations. (初級の段階
から談話の規則が当てはめられ、表層構造に文法の規則が見えにくい)
How can they make sense of sentence structure if they try to understand it in
term of linear order alone?(表面構造のみを使って説明する方法では日本語
の文法の規則は説明しにくい)
9
An example of a linear presentation of grammar
(日本語の文の構造を語順を使って説明する典型例 )
N1
に
N2
が
ある
N1
は
N2
に
ある
10
First word first?(文頭の言
葉?)
学生: 先生!「大学に」でいいですか?
先生: 何が言いたいのですか?
As students generally conceive sentence structure as
something linear, some students tend to think they
are building up a sentence from the first element.
(文章は文頭から組み立てるという考え方が学生の
中にある)
11
The objectives of this session are:
(このセッションの目的)
to work with a non-linear diagram that illustrates Japanese
grammar (語順を考慮に入れずに図を使って日本語の文法を考え
てみる)
to understand the sentence building mechanism in Japanese
visually and intuitively(視覚と直感に訴えた文の生成方法を考え
てみる)
to see how the basic model is modified due to pragmatic factors
(談話がどのように文の生成に関わるか考えてみる)
12
Let’s leave the linear representation
of language behind and try to
understand
what happens in an event
semantically.
(語順の概念を捨てて、事象を意味のレベルで
考えてみよう)
13
Our guest stars in the event are:
If the event was ‘eating’. …
が
食べました
を
14
What about if the event was ‘kicking’?
が
けりました
を
15
Valency of verbs(動詞の項)
Verbs can be understood as being born with different numbers
of and different kinds of hands which are expressed by case
particles(動詞によって取る項の数や種類が違う)
For example, the verb taberu ‘eat’ is born with two hands, i.e.
‘someone who eats’ and ‘something that gets eaten’, which are
respectively marked by the case particles ga and o. (「食べる」は
「NPが」と「NPを」と取る二項動詞)
A conceptualization like this does not require linear thinking.(項
の理解に語順の概念は必要ない)
16
Basic valency frame: the event of ‘eating’
「食べる」の項構造
たべます has two hands.
What are the case particles that express these meanings?
‘someone who eats’
まちださん
が
たべます
スパゲティ
ー
を
‘something that gets eaten’
17
Basic valency frame: the event of ‘going’
「行く」の項構造
行きます has two hands.
What are the case particles that express these meanings?
‘someone who goes’
まちださん
が
行きます
学校
へ
‘a place someone goes to’
18
Verbs with a valency of 1 (one hand
to be held)(一項動詞)
For example,
(が)
あそぶ:子供が遊ぶ。
降る:雨が降る。
が
expects to occur
with one noun
19
Verbs with a valency of 2 (two
hands to be held)(二項動詞)
For example,
を
が
expects to
occur with
two nouns
に
へ
と
が、を
e.g.
食べる:太郎がパンを食べる。
読む:太郎が本を読む。
が、に、へ、と e.g.
ある:ここに本がある。
行く:太郎がオペラに行く。
なる:太郎が先生になる。
会う:太郎が友達と会う。
20
Verbs with a valency of 3 (three
hands to be held)(3項動詞)
が
expects to
occur with
three
nouns
に
を
For example,
(が、を、に)
あげる:太郎が花子に本をあげる。
する:お父さんがガレージをワークショップにする。
入れる:太郎が本をカバンに入れる。
21
What are the valencies of the following verbs?
(下の動詞は項をいくつもっている?)
- At this stage do not include time and place, etc.
- Do not use the topic marker は.
起きる
読む
会う
なる
行く
あげる
22
Peripheral information
(付加情報)
• You can add more information to the event, which
could help set the scene, such as the time and
place and the manner in which the action is carried
out, etc.
• (基本形にもっと背景情報を付け加えてみる)
23
Peripheral information
いつ、どこで、だれと、どうやって
What other information can you add about the event?
With whom
Place
ともだち
レストラン
Time
Means
と
で
午後二時
はし
で
に
まちださ
ん
が
たべます
スパゲティ
ー
を
24
Expanding the use of the event
diagram (基本形を広げてみよう)
Using this basic diagram, you can explain quite a lot of things
about sentence organization, while maintaining the basic
diagram.
(基本形を元にもっと複雑な文が組み立てられる)
Let’s look at:
Modification (修飾)
Interrogative sentences (疑問文)
Relative clauses (連体修飾)
Complementation (~こと ~のを使う名詞節)
25
Modification (修飾)
How would you illustrate
modifiers, such as these, in the diagram
(次のような言葉を図の中に書き入れてみよう。):
a. possessive demonstrative, (指示詞) e.g. その
b. Adjectives (形容詞) 高い
c. manner adverbs (副詞), e.g. 上手に、 ゆっくり
d. quantity expressions (数量表現), e.g. 三つ、三人
f. frequency adverbs (頻度の副詞)、よく、ときどき
Modifiers can be added to the head nouns while each
constituent visually maintains its place in relation to
the main verb. Words expressing frequency, manner
and quantity can also be added to the diagram.
(基本概念は動かない)
26
Modification
よく
With whom
Place
ともだち
レストラン
Time
と
で
午後二時
Means
はし
日本人の
に
その
がくせい
が
いそいで
で
たべます
おおきい
ハンバーガ
ー
を
みっつ
27
Interrogative sentences (疑問文)
How would you illustrate
Yes/no questions and
Wh-questions?
(基本形を使って疑問文を作る。)
Wh-question words are shown to replace the
element whose information is sought, while the basic
structure remains intact.
(疑問詞は名詞の場所にはめ込むだけ)
28
Interrogative sentences
With whom
Place
だれ
ともだち
レストラン
どこ
Time
Means
と
なに・なん
はし
で
いつ
午後二時
何時に
に
で
だれ
がくせい
が
たべます
ハンバーガ
ー
なに
か
を
29
Interrogative sentences
その
どの
がくせい
が
たべます
どんな
おおきい
ハンバーガ
ー
か
を
みっつ
いくつ
30
Relative clauses (連体修飾)
How would you illustrate
relative clauses?
A relative clause (or a noun modifying clause) can be
shown to be added using the same colour and shape
as other noun modifying elements such as
demonstratives and adjectives.
(他の名詞修飾語と同じように名詞の前につけてみる。)
31
Relative clauses
レストラン
で
日本人の
がくせい
が
たべます
おおきい
ハンバーガ
ー
を
32
Complementization (の、こと節)
How would you illustrate
complementization using koto and no,
such as,
太郎が 田中さんが日本に行ったことを 知っていますか。
Complementisation using koto and no is illustrated
with the complement occupying the same noun slot
as a normal noun.
「の、こと節」を普通の名詞と同じ場所に入れさせる
33
Complementization
たろう
が
知っています
田中さん
が日本に
花子
行ったこと
か
を
34
Based on this underlying basic event structure(この基本形を元
に談話レベルの配慮を考える)
One can now form a sentence/utterance
in a linear manner, (言葉を並べてみる)
because one cannot describe all the information all at once in speech or
in writing, (いっぺんにすべての情報を言えない/書けないので)
after deciding on(次のこと考えなければならない)
the word order(語順)
What to present and what to leave out(省略)
What to topicalize (主題化)
Which viewpoint to take in reporting the event(視点)
These decisions are influenced by the context (pragmatic factors and
speaker motivations). (文脈、主観で判断する)
Apparent irregularities of a sentence are reflections of how these factors are
applied to sentence production.(表層構造が不規則に見えるのはこのよう
な判断をしてから文が作られるからである。)
35
Let’s now look at the pragmatic factors
influencing sentence building
では、コンテクストを配慮に入れて文を作ってみよう
36
Word order (語順)
As long as each element of the sentence stays together with the
particle and as long as the modifiers precede the noun and the
predicate stays in the sentence final position, the change in word
order does not change the meaning of the sentence.(名詞と格助詞
は離さなければ、…)
But there is a preferred order of elements. (普通の語順)
Topic at the beginning.
The direct object occurs close to the verb.
The subject appears towards the beginning together with
time and place.
37
Preferred word order in Japanese
(if all these elements are present, which is
unlikely.)
(TOPIC)
Temporal
Locative
Subject
Joint action (と)
Method (で)
Starting point (から)
Direction (に、へ)
Object(を)
(PREDICATE)
午後2時に レストランで 太郎が 友達と はしで
スパゲティーを 食べる。
38
Ellipsis (省略)
How would you illustrate ellipsis
in the diagram? (省略を図で表す)
The elided elements are shown to stay in the same slot as the
original, unellipted structure.
(基本形を残し、幽霊部分を作る。)
39
You can leave some of the information out
if it is understood or if it is not so important.
The verb usually says.
ともだち
レストラン
と
はし
で
午後二時
で
に
まちだ
さん
が
たべます
スパゲティ
ー
を
40
午後二時に 町田さんが 友だちと 食べます。
ともだち
レストラン
と
はし
はし
で
午後二時に
に
まちだ
さん
で
が
たべます
スパゲティ
ー
を
41
レストランで 町田さんが スパゲティーを 食べます。
レストラン
ともだち
で
と
はし
午後二時
に
まちだ
さん
で
が
たべます
スパゲティ
ー
を
42
スパゲティーを はしで 食べます。
レストラン
ともだち
で
と
はし
午後二時
に
まちだ
さん
で
が
たべます
スパゲティ
ー
を
43
食べます。
レストラン
ともだち
で
と
はし
午後二時
に
まちだ
さん
で
が
たべます
スパゲティ
ー
を
44
Topicalisation(主題化)
How would you illustrate the topic
in the diagram?
How an element on the semantic/grammatical plane
is activated to become a topic is shown by
superimposing the particle wa on the case particles,
thus showing the two different dimensions of
particles, i.e. those of case particles and discourse
particles.
(「は」は格助詞たちとは違うレベルの住人で、「は」が使われる
と「が」や「を」などの格助詞が隠れてしまう。)
45
は signals that that element is a topic, i.e.
what you are talking about or asking something about.
Any of the elements in pale blue can be
presented as a topic.
は
BUT often the person
who is doing the action gets to become the
star!
ともだち
レストラン
で
は
と
は
はし
午後二時
に
は
は
は
まちださ
ん
で
が
は
たべます
は
スパゲティ
ー
を
46
The topic usually comes at the beginning of a sentence.
(普通主題は文頭に現れる)
ともだち
レストラン
と
はし
で
午後二時
に
まちだ
さん
で
が
たべます
スパゲティ
ー
を
47
The topic usually comes at the beginning of a sentence.
まちださんは
が
ともだち
レストラン
と
はし
で
午後二時
に
まちだ
さん
で
が
たべます
スパゲティ
ー
を
48
Putting your understanding into practice
(図を使い、語順や、主題化、省略などに言及しながら下の文の成り立ちを
説明してみましょう)
Using the model, think of ways to explain the seeming irregularities of these
sentences.
Use the pragmatic factors at work, such as preposing, topicalization and
ellipsis.
The relationship between 1. and 2.(1と2の関係)
The disappearance of the direct object in 3.(隠れた直接目的語)
Why みっつ does not appear with を in 4.(「を」がない理由)
1
2
3
4
ここに 本が あります。
本は ここに あります。
ごはんは もう 食べましたか。
A: りんごを買いましたか。
B: はい、みっつ 買いました。
49
Examples (1) and (2) illustrated
using our model:
50
1. ここに 本が
あります。
ここ
に
あります
ほん
が
51
1. 本が ここに あります。 (Preposing)
ほん
が
ここ
ほん
に
あります
が
52
1. ここに 本が
2.本は
ほん
あります。
ここに あります。(preposing, topicalising)
は
が
ここ
に
あります
ほん
が
53
Example (3) illustrated using our
model:
54
3
ごはんは もうたべましたか。(Ellipsis of Noun が)
まちださ
ん
が
たべます
ひるごはん
を
55
3
ごはんは もうたべましたか。
(Preposing and topicalising of Noun-を)
ひるごはん
は
を
まちださ
ん
the ellipted doer of the action of eating in
(3) is still evident in the illustration, and the
topicalisation of the direct object is also
illustrated.
が
たべます
ひるごはん
を
56
Example (4) illustrated using our
model:
57
1. A:
りんごを
買いましたか。
The two elements of the verb kaimashita ‘bought’ are ellipted
together with the case particles, while the quantifier mittsu, as a
noun phrase external element, remains with the verb.
まちださ
ん
が
かいます
りんご
を
58
1. A:
B:
りんごを
買いましたか。
はい、みっつ買いました。(ellipsis of the direct object)
The quantity expression みっつ looks
as if it appears in place of an ellipted
direct object. That’s why students
often make the mistake of using a
case particle with quantity
expressions such as みっつを.
まちださ
ん
が
かいます
りんご
を
みっつ
59
Concluding remarks (終わりに)
There is nothing new in terms of linguistic principles in the method that I used to
present grammar today.
The visually appealing method of using the colours, shapes and animation of
PowerPoint slides could help students to understand such linguistic principles
more effectively.
Internalisation of grammar is expected to occur in students’ engagements in
exercises and activities in context; topicalisation and ellipsis can only be
explained and learnt in discourse context; and exposure to an abundance of
input is necessary for students’ language acquisition process.
However, positive evidence alone is not enough for them to work out for
themselves the mechanisms behind the forms, and formal intervention should
be incorporated in the pedagogy.
I hope that today’s presentation has shown that there may be a place for a
friendly linguistic approach in present day language classes.
60
This presentation is based on the following papers and presentations. This method of
presenting grammar is regularly used in grammar lectures in Year I Japanese at the
University of Auckland.
Minagawa, H. 2009. ‘The Structure of the Japanese Language:
a friendly linguistic approach’ Special Intensive Seminar for Teachers. Perth, Australia.
November.
Moore, H. 2005. ‘The Interface of linguistics and language teaching: A metalanguage to
assist in the teaching of Japanese grammar’ in Barbara Bourke (ed.) Innovative Practice in
Japanese Language Education. Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane. pp 99-119.
Moore, H. 2003. ‘The interface of linguistics and language teaching: the development of a
multi-dimensional metalanguage to assist in the teaching of Japanese grammar’, 15th New
Zealand Asian Studies Society International Conference, University of Auckland, Auckland,
November.
Moore, H. 2003. ‘Presenting Japanese Grammar with Effective use of the Colours, Shapes,
and Animation Effects of PowerPoint Slides: A case of first year Japanese grammar lectures
at the University of Auckland’. Biennial conference of Japanese Studies Association of
Australia, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane. July.
Moore, H. 2003. ‘The Japan Foundation Network Project: Workshops on Japanese Language.
Dunedin, Christchurch, Wellington, Auckland, New Zealand. September.
61