Transcript Pubs_files/Grammar Warm

Grammar Warm-Ups
with “This I Believe” statements
adapted from Laying the Foundation, Grade Ten
and
the Capital Community College Foundation’s
“Guide to Grammar and Writing”
Parts of Speech
• words that function in a certain way
– Noun: person, place, thing, state, quality
• functions as subject of a verb
• object of verb or preposition
– Verb: action, state, or relation between two things
• functions as the main part of the predicate
– Adjective
• modifies (develops) the meaning of a noun, usually by describing a
quality of that noun
– what kind, which one, how many?
– compare things (more, most)
– might be upgraded (very), downgraded (somewhat), or intensified
(really)
– Adverb
• modifies (develops) the meaning of a verb, adjective, or adverb
• tells place, time, manner, circumstance, degree, cause
Phrases
•
•
•
groups of words that lack subjects or verbs
function as one of the parts of speech
types include
– absolute phrases: noun/pronoun + participle
• if the participle is a form of to be, it may be omitted
• do not act as any part of speech, may be deleted without changing the meaning
• commas (or higher punctuation) on both sides
– appositive: rename the word it follows (may be another type of phrase)
• function as a noun
• commas (or higher punctuation) on both sides
– gerund: gerund (verb ending in –ing) + modifiers, objects, or complements
• function as nouns
– infinitive: infinitive verb + modifiers
• function as noun, adjective, or adverb
– participial (form of a verb that ends in –ing or –ed)
• function as adjectives
• commas (or higher punctuation) on both sides
– prepositional: preposition + noun (w/ optional modifiers)
• function as noun, adjective, or adverb
Phrases: Absolute
•
noun/pronoun + participle
–
–
if the participle is a form of to be, it may be omitted
do not act as any part of speech, may be deleted without
changing the meaning
commas (or higher punctuation) on both sides
–
•
Write a poem using four absolute phrases
1.
2.
3.
4.
Absolute phrase as subject, finish with a concrete detail
Absolute phrase as subject, finish with a concrete detail
Absolute phrase as subject, finish with a concrete detail
Absolute phrase as subject, finish with a concrete detail
Phrases: Appositive
• renames the word it follows (may be another
type of phrase)
– functions as a noun
– use commas (or higher punctuation) on both sides
• Write a poem using four appositive phrases
describing something important
1. Noun + appositive
2. Noun + appositive
3. Noun + appositive
4. Noun + appositive
5. Finish by revealing what you are describing
Gerund Phrases
– gerund (verb ending in –ing) + modifiers,
objects, or complements
•
function as nouns
– Write a poem using four gerund phrases
1.
2.
3.
4.
Gerund phrase as subject, finish with a rhyme
Gerund phrase as subject, finish with a rhyme
Gerund phrase as subject, finish with a rhyme
Gerund phrase as subject, finish with a rhyme
Infinitive Phrases
•
the infinitive is the most basic form of a verb
–
to + (root of verb)
•
•
infinitive verb + modifiers
–
•
function as noun, adjective, or adverb
Write a poem using infinitive phrases
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
–
to be, to do, to run, to sing, to feel, etc ad infinitum
infinitive phrase as an adjective
infinitive phrase as a noun
infinitive phrase as an adverb
infinitive phrase as a noun
infinitive phrase as an adjective
Challenge: use the same infinitive in each line
Participial Phrases
•
A participle is form of a verb that ends in
–ing (present participle) or –ed (past participle
•
•
•
function as adjectives
take commas (or higher punctuation) on both sides
Write a poem using participial phrases
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
independent clause (sentence)
participial phrase
participial phrase
participial phrase
participial phrase
Prepositional Phrases
•
preposition + noun (w/ optional modifiers)
–
prepositional phrases function as adjectives or adverbs and
sometimes as noun complements.
•
•
Some of the most common prepositions:
–
•
a noun complement is like a modifier, but it cannot be deleted from
the sentence. Teachers are fond of books.
at, on, in, to, for, since, of, about, with, against, from, around,
under, over, like, as, behind, outside
Write a poem using prepositional phrases
1. one prepositional phrase as a noun complement
2. two prepositional phrases as adjectives
3. three prepositional phrases as adverbs (can modify verbs,
adjectives, or other adverbs)
4. four prepositional phrases
The Be-Verb
The most inflected verb in English
Inflected words change form but retain their core meaning
• Present tense
– I am
– You are
– He/she/it is
– We are
– [Y’all are]
– They are
• Past tense
– I as
– You were
– He/she/it was
– We were
– [Y’all were]
– They were
• Future tense
– I will be
– You will be
– He/she/it will be
– We will be
– [Y’all will be]
– They will be
Other inflected words: good, better, best
more, many, most
Comparatives & Superlatives
• these adjectives describe a hierarchy
– comparatives compare two things
– superlatives compare three or more things
base word → comparative → superlative
base → + -er → + -est
old → older → oldest
few → fewer → fewest (used for things you can count)
• they are often inflected (the form changes, but the meaning doesn’t)
good → better → best
more → many → most
less → lesser → least (used for things you can’t count)
Fun with Phrases
• Write a sentence that begins with
– a present participial phrase
• a present participle is a verbal with an –ing ending
– a verbal has the form but not the function of a verb
– that acts as an adjective
– a past participial phrase
• a past participle begins with and –ed verbal
– an absolute phrase
– a gerund phrase as the subject
• a gerund is a verbal with an –ing ending
• that acts as a noun
– an infinitive as the subject
• an infinitive is the most basic form of a verb
• to + the stem (to cook, to eat, to be)
Advanced Phrase Poem: Absolute
and Prepositional Phrases
Write a poem that contains these phrases on each
line
1. absolute phrase
2. absolute phrase
3. absolute phrase
independent clause
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
prepositional phrase
prepositional phrase
prepositional phrase prepositional phrase
prepositional phrase
prepositional phrase
Advanced Phrase Poem:
Appositive and Participial Phrases
independent clause with absolute phrase
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
participial phrase
participial phrase
participial phrase
participial phrase
participial phrase
Advanced Clause/Phrase Poem:
Subordinate Clause with Infinitive
and Prepositional Phrases
subordinate clause
independent clause
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
infinitive phrase + prepositional phrase
infinitive phrase + prepositional phrase
infinitive phrase + prepositional phrase
infinitive phrase + prepositional phrase
infinitive phrase + prepositional phrase
independent clause
Simple Sentences
• Independent clauses
–
–
–
–
have a subject and a verb
express a complete thought
may include modifiers and complements
may include phrases
• Create an independent clause that includes one noun and one verb.
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
add one or more adjectives
add one or more adverbs
add one or more prepositional phrases
add one or more infinitive phrases
add one or more absolute phrases
add one or more appositive phrases
add one or more gerund phrases
add one or more prepositional phrases
Simple Sentences with Compound
Subjects and Verbs
•
A simple sentence consists of an independent clause
– have a subject and a verb
– express a complete thought
•
A compound subject consists of
– two subjects joined by a coordinating conjunction (and, or, for, nor, so, but, yet)
• Mary and Bill ate cake.
•
Write a simple sentence about something you believe with
– two or more subjects
– a verb
– two phrases (absolute, appositive, gerund, infinitive, participial, prepositional)
•
A compound verb consists of
– two verbs joined by a coordinating conjunction
• Mary writes and teaches others to write.
•
Write a simple sentence about something related to your first sentence with
– a subject
– two or more verbs
– two phrases (absolute, appositive, gerund, infinitive, participial, prepositional)
Conjunctions
• These words join (or conjoin) other words,
phrases, or sentences.
– from the Latin conjugere
– con = together
– join  junc
– tion = noun
Coordinating Conjunctions
FANBOYS
for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
•
•
•
and
– one idea comes after the
other or next
– surprise!
– one idea depends on the
other (conditionally)
– one idea is a comment on the
other
or
– only one, excluding the other
– alternative
– refine, restate, correct
– negative condition or
alternative
for
– stronger version of because
or since
•
•
•
•
nor
– used with negative
expressions
– neither… nor…
so
– therefore
but
– unexpected contrast
– with the exception of
– what came before is wrong
yet (stronger than but)
– in addition
– even
– still
– now
– can combine with but or and
Correlative Conjunctions
•
•
These words function as pairs.
Be sure the structures after each correlative conjunctions are parallel
– both . . . and…
• Both Mary and Bill worked on the project.
– both proper noun and proper noun
– not only . . . but also
• Mary and Bill not only worked on this project together, but also [worked] on another one.
– not only verb + prepositional phrases beginning with on, but also verb + prepositional phrases
beginning with on
– not . . . but…
• Sad to say, it was not Mary but Bill who did the work.
– not proper noun, but proper noun
– either . . . or …
• Either Mary or Bill may earn credit.
– either + proper noun, or + proper noun
– neither . . . nor…
• Neither Mary nor Bill completed the project by deadline.
– neither + proper noun, nor + proper noun
– whether . . . or…
• Whether Mary did the work or Bill [did the work] doesn’t matter.
– whether proper noun + did + direct object, or proper noun + implied did + implied direct object
– as . . . as…
• Mary is as unhappy with her grade as Bill [is].
– as + be-verb + predicate adjective, as + be-verb + predicate adjective
Conjunctive Adverbs
•
addition
–
•
comparison
–
•
after all, as an illustration, even, for example, for instance, in conclusion, indeed, in fact, in other words, in
short, it is true, of course, namely, specifically, that is, to illustrate, thus, truly
summary
–
•
or
illustration
–
•
certainly, indeed, in fact, of course
example
–
•
although, and yet, at the same time, but at the same time, despite that, even so, even though, for all that,
however, in contrast, in spite of, instead, nevertheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand,
otherwise, regardless, still, though, yet
emphasis
–
•
granted, naturally, of course
contrast
–
•
also, in the same way, likewise, similarly
concession
–
•
again, also, and, and then, besides, equally important, finally, first, further, furthermore, in addition, in the first
place, last, moreover, next, second, still, too
all in all, altogether, as has been said, finally, in brief, in conclusion, in other words, in particular, in short, in
simpler terms, in summary, on the whole, that is, therefore, to put it differently, to summarize
time sequence
–
after a while, afterward, again, also, and then, as long as, at last, at length, at that time, before, besides,
earlier, eventually, finally, formerly, further, furthermore, in addition, in the first place, in the past, last, lately,
meanwhile, moreover, next, now, presently, second, shortly, simultaneously, since, so far, soon, still,
subsequently, then, thereafter, too, until, until now, when
Fun with Very Simple Sentences
• Write a sentence that
– begins with the subject
– begins with an article (a, an, the) and the
subject
– begins with an adjective and the subject
– begins with an adverb before the subject
Compound Sentences
•
Independent clauses
– have a subject and a verb
– express a complete thought
•
Write two independent clauses, about something you believe, that are
related to each other. Each should have
– a subject
– a verb
– two phrases (absolute, appositive, gerund, infinitive, participial, prepositional)
•
Compound sentences consist of two independent clauses joined into one.
– joined by a semicolon
• may begin with a conjunctive adverb
after all
also
consequently
for example
for instance
furthermore
however
in fact
in general
indeed
moreover
nevertheless
still
then
therefore
– joined by a comma and coordinating conjunction
, and (plus)
, or (only one)
, for (because, since)
, nor (negative)
, so (therefore)
, but (contrast, exception)
, yet (in addition, still, at this
time, nevertheless)
Beginning
with a Coordinating Conjunction
• Some teachers tell you not to do it because
these same conjunctions can join phrases.
It’s not correct. And creates sentence fragments.
• However, it is perfectly acceptable to begin an
independent clause (complete sentence) with a
conjunction.
– This intensifies the sentence.
Some teachers say you shouldn’t begin with but.
But they’re wrong.
Complex Sentences
• Dependent or Subordinate Clauses
– must have information added to complete a thought
– begin with a subordinating conjunction
• Some Common Subordinating Conjunctions
and
after
as
as though
as long as
as if
because
before
even if
even though
if
if only
in order that
now that
once
rather than
since
so that
than
that
though
till
unless
until
when
whenever
where
whereas
wherever
while
• Write two independent clauses, about something you believe,
that are related to each other.
– Subordinate one to the other by using a subordinating conjunction
– Add another dependent clause to your sentence
Then v. Than
• Than is a subordinating conjunction that
compares things
– often, only the subject is stated and the predicate is
implied
My teacher is a better writer than I [am].
• Then is an adjective that tells when.
– it means next
– it can move to different places in a sentence
– it does NOT take a comma!
Learn the difference between then and than; then
you will be a better writer.
Like v. As
• As is a subordinating conjunction
– as if, as though
It is as if you were the teacher.
• Like is a preposition that describes
similarities
This story is like Oedipus Rex.
– if you are listing similarities, use such as.
This school has many prestigious alumni,
such as Bill, Mary, and Mark.
The Implied That
…is a subordinating conjunction
…that can sometimes, but not always, be omitted.
Silly Sally knew that her paper would earn an F.
Silly Sally knew her paper would earn an F.
• (That can also function as a pronoun, adjective,
adverb, or as the plural of those.)
Beginning with Because
• The word because always introduces a
dependent clause.
Because I can
• Therefore, it cannot take a period.
• But if connected to an independent clause, it can
strengthen a sentence.
Because I can, I will.
I will because I can.
• Note that the because-clause takes a comma
when it introduces an independent clause.
Restrictive and Nonrestrictive
Clauses
• Dependent clauses (a.k.a. subordinate
clauses) are either restrictive or
nonrestrictive.
– Restrictive clauses modify the noun they
come after
• often use the word that but never which
– Nonrestrictive clauses do not change the
meaning of the word they modify
• often use the word which but never that
• set them apart using commas or higher
punctuation
Compound-Complex Sentences
• Write three (3) independent clauses, that are
related to each other, about something you
believe
• Write three (3) dependent clauses that are
related to the independent clauses.
• Form a compound-complex sentence using two
independent clauses and one or more of the
dependent clauses.
– Join independent clauses with comma + coordinating
conjunction or semicolon
Fun with Inverted Sentences
• Write a sentence that begins with
– an adverbial clause
• Finally I understand why my teachers get so mad at me.
– a noun clause
• To walk away when another’s speaking is a most egregious
form of discourtesy.
– a predicate adjective
• This I believe: courtesy is respect.
– a verb
• Speak he did, but not until I asked his opinion.
More Fun with Inverted Sentences
– a predicate adjective
• Disrespectful was the girl who put her head on her desk.
– a subordinate clause
• Although they were talking about what the teacher was
discussing, they were still disrespectful because they were
not listening to her.
– several prepositional phrases
• Despite the rudeness of chattering brats in the back of the
room, the good student listened carefully and took efficient,
effective notes.
– postpones the subject
• There exists among civilized people one ultimate rule:
courtesy.
Fun with Sentences
• Write a sentence
– that begins with an interjection
• Aha! I finally understand what you’re trying to say.
Thank you for your patience.
– in which repetition plays a role.
• We should be courteous to those outside the
home, we should be courteous to family, but above
all, we should be courteous to ourselves.
– that asks a rhetorical question.
Advanced Sentence Structures
• Loose/Cumulative
– begins with an independent clause
– adds phrases and clauses after
• a cumulative sentence adds lots of phrases and clauses
• Periodic
– begins with phrases and clauses
– ends with independent clause and a period
• Balanced/Cumulative
– phrases and clauses balance each other because of
• structure
• meaning
• length
• Antithetical
– two statements that are balanced but opposite
Fun with Advanced Sentence
Structures
• Write a loose sentence
• Write a cumulative sentence (with lots of
phrases afterward)
• Write a periodic sentence
• Write a balanced sentence
• Write an antithetical sentence
Syntax Techniques: Natural and
Reversed Sentences
• Syntax: arrangement of words and grammatical
elements in a sentence.
• Natural order of a sentence: subject + predicate
• Reversal
– Antimetabole: the arrangement of ideas in the second clause is a
reversal of the arrangement in the first. It adds power.
• Although courtesy is a form of respect, respect is not a prerequisite
for courteous behavior.
– Inversion: elements of a sentence are reversed. Most often, the
predicate comes before the subject.
• Before a calm demeanor comes a calm voice. Control your voice
and you control your emotions.
– Juxtaposition normally unassociated words or phrases are
placed next to one another. Creates surprise or demonstrates
wit.
Syntax Techniques: Repetition
• Repetition: words, sounds, and ideas are repeated to
create emphasis.
– Anadiplosis: repeat the last word of one clause at the beginning
of the next. It ties the sentences together.
• This provides strong transitions
– Anaphora: repeat the same word or group of words at the
beginning of clauses. It establishes a strong rhythm and
produces a powerful emotional effect.
– Epanalepsis: repetition at the end of a clause of a word (or form
of a word) that occurred at the beginning of the clause. It makes
the sentence or clause stand out.
– Epistrophe: repetition of the same word or group of words at the
ends of successive clauses. It sets up a strong rhythm and
emphasizes the repeated word(s).
Syntax Techniques: Parallelism
Parallelism: grammatical or structural similarity
between sentences or parts of sentences.
Elements that are equally important are equally
developed and similarly phrased.
– likeness of form helps readers perceive the likeness
of content or function
– gives equal emphasis to each parallel element
• Antithesis: place one idea next to an opposing
idea. Provides a balanced contrast of ideas.
“Give me liberty or give me death.
Practice: Parallelism
– Write a sentence about something you believe that
has at least three parallel gerunds or participles.
– Write a sentence about something you believe that
has at least thee parallel phrases (absolute or
adverbial).
– Write a sentence about something you believe that
has at least three parallel, dependent clauses.
– Write a sentence about something you believe that
has correlative conjunctions and parallel structures.
• Write a sentence using antithesis
Paralleism: Lincoln’s Gettysburg
Address
Parallelism: Gettysburg Address,
Cont’d
Syntax Techniques: Polysyndeton
and Omission
• Omission
– Asyndeton: omission of conjunctions. It speeds the
pace of the sentence.
– Ellipsis: omission of a word or words that are readily
supplied by the context. It creates an elegant or
daring economy of words.
• Polysyndeton: delebarate use of many
conjunctions. Emphasizes quantity or mass of
detail. Creates flowing, continuous sentence
pattern. Slows the pace of the sentence.
Syntax Techniques: Rhetorical
Fragments and Questions
• Rhetorical Fragment: a sentence fragment
used purposely. It makes the statement
extremely strong.
• Rhetorical Question: a question that does
not require an answer. It draws attention to
its point and is stronger than a direct
statement
Transitions
• Conjunctive Adverbs
– indicate subtle and intricate relationships
• Conjunctive connectors
– first, second, etc
• Repetition of key words
– anadiplosis: repeat the last word of one clause at the
beginning of the next. It ties the sentences together.
• Pronouns
– Correctly used, they promt the reader to sum up what
has come before
• Parallel structures
Punctuation Hierarchy
• Period + space + Capital Letter
– Semicolon
• comma
– dash (use for emphasis only)
» parentheses
Complement v. Modifier
• Both develop the meaning of the words
they are attached to
• Modifiers are not necessary to a sentence.
They can be omitted.
• Complements are necessary for the
sentence to make sense.
– Linking verbs always need complements
• My sister is an absolute bear! (noun complement)
• My sister is mean. (adjective complement)