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CHAPTER 16 Mariya Shkolnaya Trevor Oldham William Hockaday Dain Kasparak Part I: RURAL GROWTH AND CRISIS Rural Growth and Crisis 1200-1500: Latin West brought more land under cultivation, adopted new farming techniques, and made greater use of machinery. 9 out of 10 people in Europe were rural. Devastation from 1347 to 1351 by the Black Plague Peasants, Population, and Plague In 1200 most Europeans were serfs Serfs worked for a lord on his land Neither side was motivated to introduce many improvements in farming practices, so it was very inefficient. Even though they worked hard, the inefficiency yielded little profit. Both men and women worked in the fields, although this equality in labor doesn’t necessarily signify an equality of decision making Poverty wasn’t only due to farming inefficiency, but also to social inequalities. It also resulted from the ‘boom’ of Europe's population The three-field system was implemented by farmers. This means that they grew crops on two thirds of their land, and on the last third they grew oats which stored nitrogen and nutrients back into the soil. These oats could be used to feed plow horses. However, this technique was not widespread? Peasants, Population, and Plague Population growth also led to the foundation of new agricultural settlements. By draining swamps and clearing forests, people brought new land under cultivation within the existing boundaries of the Latin West. As population continued to rise, people had to farm lands that were nutrient-poor. The result was a decrease in crop yields and an increase number of people going hungry. However, what eased the population pressure was not famine, but plague, specifically the Black Death or bubonic plague Despite official attempts to quarantine the disease, it spread rampantly throughout the world. This disease causes a quick and unpleasant death, raising the tensions as people realized how unexpectedly death could come strolling into their life Social Rebellion The Black Death set off social changes in western Europe. People demanded higher pay for their services, which prompted a response from the authorities to freeze wages at low levels. Enraged, peasants took arms and revolted The government put down these rebellions ruthlessly, dropping the population even more. Employers then had to offer higher wages to attract people to fill the jobs lost by these uprisings and the plague. This gradually resulted in the slow economic recovery and the general rise of the public’s wealth. Mills and Mines The use of mechanical energy, mining, and metallurgy grew so much in the centuries before 1500 that some historians have spoken of an “industrial revolution” in medieval Europe. While maybe being an exaggeration, technology was used at an increasing rate Mills were used to grind grain and flour, saw logs into lumber, crush olives, tan leather, make paper, and perform many other useful tasks. Mills worked by running on water wheels Windmills were around as well, working on the same concepts as mills Metallurgy surged in importance and mills were outfitted with furnaces that could work the metal better than anything of the time. Mills and Mines Rapid growth in industry produced significant changes in the landscape. Pollution became a serious problem First recorded antipollution law was passed by the English Parliament in 1388, although enforcement of this law was difficult. One of the most dramatic changes of this time period was the deforestation and clearing of trees. Trees were useful for the emerging industry, and they were in the way for the farmers seeking new land. The obvious solution worked win-win for the people, but was lose-lose for the environment Part II: Urban Revival Trading Cities After the 1200’s, most of the urban growth in the Latin West was due to the continuing growth of trade & manufacturing. Northern Italy cities benefited from ports in the eastern Mediterranean, & through them, the Indian Ocean & East Asia. 2 Events strengthened Italian trade w/ the Eastern Mediterranean in the 13th century: Venetian inspired assault in 1204 against Constantinople. Misleadingly called the “Fourth Crusade, it was prompted by a desire to control the passage between the Mediterranean & Black Seas (better access to East Asia). They then seized the strategic island of Crete & expanded trading colonies around the Black Sea. Westward expansion of Mongol Empire, opening the Mediterranean to trade routes to China. Marco Polo visited in 1271 & served under Khubilai Khan as an ambassador & governor of a Chinese province. The sea trade of Italian city Genoa increased. Genoese merchants began to create colonies in the Mediterranean & Black Seas. An association of trading cities known as the Hanseatic League formed in northern Europe that conducted extensive trade in the Baltic. This area covers conquered coasts of Prussia, as far east as Novgorod in Russia and westward across the North Sea to London. By the late 13th century, Genoese galleys (ships powered by 60 oarsmen) were converging on the Flemish towns of Bruges, Ghent, & Ypres b/c of their skilled artisans that turned raw wool into a fine cloth dyed in vivid hues. Trading Cities, contd. Along the overland route connecting Flanders & northern Italy, regional markets developed in the Champagne region of Burgundy which met once or twice a year exchanging manufactured goods, livestock, & produce. When the city became under control of the king of France, the markets soon turned into international fairs, where currency exchange & financial transactions took place. In the late 13th century, English monarchy raised taxes on exports of raw wool, making it more profitable to produce cloth in England than in Flanders. Flemish textile specialists also introduced the spinning wheel & other devices to England, which resulted in a decrease in raw wool exports and increase in cloth exports Growing textile industries began using windmills & water wheels. In Flanders, for example, mills were used to clean and thicken woven cloth by beating it w/ water (fulling). Another example is applying mill power to papermaking, making Westerners the first to use machines to do heavy work in manufacturing. In the 15th century, Venice surpassed all European rivals in volume of trade, partly do to its manufactured luxury goods. Trade Routes in Later Medieval Europe Civic Life More social freedom in trading cities than in rural areas. Italian and German cities were independent states. Others had royal charters exempting them from noble rule, which gave them quicker adaptability to changes in market. Most Europe’s Jews lived in these cities; majority lived in Spain. However, they were often violently persecuted during times of crisis & were expelled from Spain in 1492. Civic life was dominated by powerful associations of craft specialists called guilds. They regulated their members’ business practices & prices they charged. Although they perpetuated male dominance, in a few places women were able to join. Large numbers of poor women also labored in nonguild jobs, receiving smaller wages than their male counterparts. Marriage to wealthy men is a means of social advancement for women. A new class of wealthy merchant-bankers rose in the 15th century that operated on a vast scale and specialized in money changing, loans, & investments. Most money lenders were Jews b/c Latin Christians considered charging interest sinful. Gothic Cathedrals Master builders & associated craftsmen were in greatest demand in thriving cities for constructing Gothic cathedrals. One distinctive features of the new cathedrals was the pointed, or gothic, arch, which replaced the round, or Roman, arch. Another was external flying buttresses that stabilized the high thin stone columns below the arches. These two features allowed master builders push the cathedrals to great heights and fill walls with stained glass windows depicting religious scenes. Although master builders sometimes miscalculated & their overly ambitious structures collapsed, they learned from their mistakes and the heights of their cathedrals were unsurpassed until the 20th century. Part III: Learning, Literature, and the Renaissance Latin West and Medieval European Learning People in the Latin West lived amid reminders of the achievements of the Roman Empire. They wrote and worshiped in a version of the language, traveled its roads, and obeyed some of its laws. The clothing of the popes, kings, and emperors were modeled on the regalia of Roman officials. Early medieval Europeans lost touch with much of the learning of Greco-Roman antiquity. That left an opening for religion to influences of Christian and Hebrew scriptures. Intellectuals in Latin West struggled to recover the learning and values of the Greco-Roman classical past. Small arrivals of learning such as with the court of Charlemagne in the ninth century followed by the Renaissance occurred, enabling remembrance of the GrecoRoman classical past. Manuscripts When southern Italy was wrested from the Byzantines and Sicily and Toledo from the Muslims in the eleventh century, many manuscripts of Greek and Arabic works came into Western hands and were translated into Latin for readers eager for new ideas. A manuscript is any document written by hand, as opposed to being printed or reproduced in some other way. The manuscripts included works of ancient philosophy by Plato and Aristotle and Greek treatises on medicine, mathematic, and geography that were previously unknown to medieval Latin Christians. The works of the Iranian philosopher Ibn Sina known in the West as Avicenna, were particularly influential. The Jewish scholarly community contributed significantly. Foundation of Universities Christian monasteries were important centers of learning, and the church was an important advocate of scholarship. In 1200 new institutions of higher education were created: independent colleges. The Dominicans and Franciscans were two religious orders established in the thirteenth century. The most talented members of the two orders would have distinguished careers as university professors. Universities established in Paris and Oxford may have been modeled after similarly endowed places of study in the Islamic world, madrasas. Madrasas provided subsidized housing for poor students and paid the salaries of their teachers. Universities Universities in Latin West were degree-granting corporations specializing in multidisciplinary research and advanced teaching. Some of the first universities were started by students; others were founded as guilds to which all the professors of a city belonged. These teaching guilds set the standards for membership in their profession, trained apprentices and masters, and defended their professional interests. Universities set the curriculum of study each discipline and instituted comprehensive final examinations for degrees. After passing the exam the students were given a diploma known as a license to teach. Universally recognized degrees, well-trained professors, and exciting new texts promoted the rapid spread of universities in late medieval Europe. All universities courses were taught in Latin. Universities offered a variety of programs of study but generally were identified with a particular specialty. Humanists Italian writers made use of Greco-Roman classical themes and mythology and sometimes chose to write not in Latin but in vernacular languages to reach a broader audience. Dante influenced a literary movement and people became humanists: their interest in grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, and moral philosophy subjects known as humanities. The humanists’ greatest influence was in reforming secondary education. The humanists introduced a curriculum centered on the languages and literature of Greco-Roman antiquity. Humanists gained language skills and used them to restore original texts of Greco-Roman writers and of the Bible. Printers Influence of humanists was enhanced after 1450 because printing technology increased the availability of their critical editions of literature. Chinese were the first to use carved wood blocks for printing. Three technological improvements around 1450: Movable pieces of type consisting of individual letters; new ink suitable for printing on paper; the printing press. Johann Gutenberg did most to perfect printing. Humanists and printers were becoming great influences on students and literate peoples. The Renaissance Although artists continued to depict biblical subjects, the spread of Greco- Roman learning led many artists, especially in Italy, to portray Greco-Roman deities and mythical tales. Artist Giotto influenced many major Italian painters and was credited for reviving the “lost art of painting”. New painting technology from the Alps where pigments were mixed with linseed oil instead of diluted egg yolk. Oil paints were slower drying and more versatile. Many famous artists contributing to this Renaissance: Jan van Eyck, Leonardo da Vinci, and Michelangelo. The patronage of wealthy and educated merchants and prelates did much to foster an artistic blossoming. Part IV: Political and Military Transformations Monarchs, Nobles, and the Church Thirteenth-century city states showed traits of the medieval era, like hereditary monarchs, although the power of these monarchs was more limited. The kings and nobles still shared a Vassal relationship, although nobles tried to protect their own rights and limit the king’s power. Crossbows with metal-tipped arrows that could shoot with enough force to puncture armor and firearms borrowed from the Chinese changed the military roles of knights, as they brought the role of knights into question and raised the number of hired crossbowmen (mercenaries) in European warfare. The church was enraged because of the extent of royal control, and in 1302 Pope Boniface said that divine law declared the papacy superior to every living creature, including royalty. King Philip of France responded by sending an army to arrest the pope, and after Pope Boniface’s death, a new papacy was established in Avignon, backed by the French monarchy. The Great Western Schism (not to be confused with the East-West Schism), from 1378 to 1415, caused the papacy of Rome and France to compete for Latin Christians. The schism was resolved by moving the papal residence back to Rome. Meanwhile, in England, the monarchy was forced to acknowledge the pope as his overlord and the Magna Carta was signed, in which the king agreed to acknowledge and follow the law. Also, the church’s independence was established and the hereditary rights of nobles. Marriage was used to establish alliances and to gain land, yet led to conflicts over inheritance. The Hundred Years War The Hundred Years War lasted from 1337 to 1453, and was fought between the king of France and his vassals, including England, Brittany, Burgundy, and Flanders. The Hundred Years War started from a marriage alliance. Princess Isabella of France married King Edward II of England (“Braveheart”) to strengthen the vassal relationship between France and the vassal England. Their son, King Edward III of England, laid claim to the throne of France when none of Isabella’s brothers produced a male heir, but royal courts decided to award the throne to a distant relative of Edward. Hilarity ensues. The French crossbowmen were no match for the English longbowmen, for the distance and speed of the longbow outmatched the piercing crossbow. Artillery was used more frequently in this war as the cannon grew and blasting holes became more effective in sieges. Joan of Arc, a French peasant woman, rallied French troops and defeated the English during a critical point in the war when France seemed to have nearly been conquered by England. She was later captured by the English and burned at the stake. The French ended the war in 1453, establishing firm control of the English. New Monarchies in France & England New monarchies resulted from the Hundred Years War, as power became more centralized, borders became more defined, and stronger representative institutions. Innovations in firearms led to armor becoming more useless and a dependence on bowmen, pikemen, musketeers, and artillery. The new armies required more money and monarchs financed the army by taxing and payments from vassals. Power shifted from nobles and the church to monarchs, only slightly. Representative bodies became checks one the monarchs and the executive powers. Iberian Unification Spain and Portugal took back Iberia from Muslim rule as a crusade to expand Latin Christianity and to gain back the economic advantages that came with the Iberian Peninsula, like the ports of the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. The conquest of the Iberian Peninsula was halted and came in waves to consolidate control of territories. After the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, attempts to conquer and Christianize North Africa ensued. The conquering of Muslim Africa ended in 1492. In 1492, Spain conquered Granada, too. Columbus was also sponsored by the monarchs of Spain in 1492. Spain and Portugal eventually expelled all Jews from their territories.